CHAPTER ONE    INTRODUCTION 

 

1.1 Background to the Study 

What informed this study is the changing trends and developments in international migration 

and its challenges to the Nigeria Immigration service whose institutional role it is to manage 

international migration as it concerns Nigeria. In its efforts over the years to control criminal 

activities associated with international migration, the Nigeria Immigration Service is yet to 

succeed. Nigeria is an important destination country for migrants in the West African sub-

region. The latest available figures indicate that the number of immigrants residing in Nigeria 

has more than doubled in recent decades, from 477,135 in 1991 to 971,450 in 2005 (NPC, 

1991). The number of immigrants is expected to increase to 1.1 million in 2010 (UNPD, 

2009). However, immigrants make up only 0.7 per cent of the total population. The majority 

of immigrants in Nigeria are from neighboring Economic Community of West African States 

(ECOWAS) countries (74%), in particular from Benin (29%), Ghana (22%) and Mali (16%) 

(DRC, 2007). Resident permit data from ECOWAS indicate that the share of ECOWAS 

residents has increased considerably over the last decade, from 63 per cent in 2001 to 97 per 

cent in 2005 (ECOWAS, 2006). Refugees constitute a small proportion of the overall 

immigrant stock (0.9% in 2007), the majority of whom are Liberians. The majority of 

asylum- seekers are from the Great Lakes Region (65%) (NCFR, 2008). Relatively few 

foreigners have been identified as being the victims of trafficking (2,537) in the past four 

years (NAPTIP, 2009). Nigeria is also a destination country for highly skilled migration. 

According to the latest data, immigrants figure prominently in categories such as general 

managers (2.73%), corporate managers (0.89%), and physical, mathematical and engineering 

science professionals (0.43%), and less so in clerical work such as customer service clerks 

(0.21%) or manual work. Most of the immigrants working in the professional/technical and 

related workers‘ group are from Europe (47.37%), while most of the immigrants working in 



2 

 

clerical jobs are from the neighboring ECOWAS countries (42.84%) National Manpower 

Board (2004). As people migrate to Nigeria for economic and other reasons, there is 

migration of Nigerians to other parts of the world for same reasons. 

          Since the mid-1990s, there has been a gradual upturn in migration flows in most 

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Member countries. 

Owing to regional conflicts, but also to the restrictions placed on other immigration channels, 

the number of asylum seekers and refugees has risen substantially, particularly in some 

European countries. Immigration for employment reasons, permanent but in particular 

temporary, also increased sharply in 1999-2000 in response to economic trends in Member 

countries and the resulting labor shortages in certain sectors. Nevertheless, immigration for 

family reasons continues to predominate, especially in the longer-standing countries of 

immigration. Lastly, the persistence of illegal migration, the volume of which is by definition 

impossible to determine, indicates clearly the difficulties that host and origin countries are 

encountering in their attempts to control migration flows. 

          Immigration plays a significant role in the annual population growth of certain OECD 

countries. They have a high proportion of foreign births in total births, and the foreign or 

foreign-born population is growing and diversifying. The importance of migration inflows is 

sometimes emphasized in connection with the aging of the population. Without denying their 

potential contribution to reducing demographic imbalances, their impact in this regard should 

not be overestimated.  

      The Nigeria Immigration Service was established as a state institution with the major 

function of managing international migration as it concerns Nigeria. Before now, it was easy 

for the NIS to perform this function, but with the phenomenon of globalization, the trend of 

international migration has changed. It is now herculean task for the NIS and indeed every 

other State institution concerned with international migration to cope effectively with 



3 

 

migration flows. International migration flows has increased tremendously over the years 

without the NIS possessing the capacity to control and manage it. In other words, there is no 

corresponding increase both in human and material resources to cope. The changing trends of 

immigration and emigration especially from the period after the Structural Adjustment 

Program (SAP) in 1986 have posed serious challenges to the Nigeria Immigration Service. 

The study is about the tremendous increase in migration flows occasioned by globalization 

and how this has made it very difficult for the Nigeria Immigration Service (NIS) to cope 

with its statutory role of managing migration processes. International migration is used to 

represent both immigration and emigration processes.  

            Migration is a most dynamic feature of population distribution. It is a process which 

has been from the creation of the universe. In sub-Saharan Africa, it has been a permanent 

characteristic of the region long before colonization. In West Africa, it is a normal process of 

interaction without barrier even with the forceful partition of the continent between the 

western capitalist powers which paved the way for colonization. 

During colonization, migration was not significantly altered either as a result of 

forceful separation of kith and kin into different countries nor was the native language 

tampered with. This can be said of the Yoruba in the western part of Nigeria, the 

Hausa/Fulani in the north, the Ibibio, Efik in the eastern part and so on, migration continues 

till this day. 

However, with the advent of colonization, Nigeria came to be bonded on every side 

by French speaking countries. Even Cameroon is not entirely Anglophone as the greater part 

speaks French. Despite this enriching arrangement, migration has never been a subject of 

state policy in the sub – region until after independence. The changing economic fortunes of 

the various countries have attracted notable mobility in the direction of economically buoyant 



4 

 

countries and the downturns have called for state policies to stem migration which in some 

cases have boiled down to large scale deportation. 

Theoretically, Nigeria and all the countries sharing border with her with the exception 

of Cameroon are all members of the Economic Community of West African Countries 

(ECOWAS); in which case, the citizens of these countries are to enjoy freedom of movement. 

All the same, migration became a subject of state policy especially for Nigerian authority 

with the increased rate of criminality recorded at the borders which come in form of 

smuggling, trafficking (Drug and Human), religious carnage fueled by imported extremism 

and the resulting deaths of innocent Nigerians and threat to state security and stability. 

The September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre in New York has 

brought to the centre stage security implication of migration. Already, Nigeria has had at 

different intervals serious armed confrontations with migration intruders from the Republics 

of Chad and Niger trying to forcefully import religious fanaticism and extremism into 

Nigeria. Despite her avowed foreign policy of Africa as the centerpiece of her foreign policy, 

Nigeria cannot but resort to force against unwanted and criminally minded migration in order 

to protect its sovereignty. 

 

 According to Begtts (2008) international migration is divided into a range of different 

categories: low-skilled labor migration, high-skilled labor migration, irregular migration, 

international travel, lifestyle migration, environmental migration, human trafficking and 

smuggling, asylum and refugee protection, internally displaced people, Diaspora and 

remittances. Each of these is regulated differently at the global level. They vary along a 

spectrum in terms of the degree of formal institutional cooperation that exists – from asylum 

and refugee protection, which has a formal regime like the United Nations Organization 

(UNO), while labor migration largely remain unregulated at the global level. 



5 

 

Observations show increasing upsurge in international migration which includes both 

legal and illegal migration in and out of the country. This increasing immigration and 

emigration capacity has thrown up a lot of cross border challenges in the form of 

transnational crimes. These challenges have been enhanced by the porous nature of Nigeria‘s 

vast borders. The security implication of this to Nigeria is enormous. What are the trends of 

immigration processes and what are their challenges to the Nigeria Immigration service? Also 

what is the institutional capacity of the NIS in coping with these challenges? These processes 

include legal migration into the country in the form of expatriates, tourists, visitors and 

business visitors. They also include illegal immigrants in the form of those looking for 

greener pastures from Nigeria‘s poor neighboring States and those who come in for cross 

border criminal activities. Another aspect of the migration processes is those who emigrate to 

look for greener pastures. Among these are skilled laborers in the form of brain drain. These 

skilled laborers constitute the legal emigrants. Another group of emigrants are the illegal ones 

who mostly travel with forged travel documents. They, in addition, to the illegal immigrants 

constitute the real challenge to the NIS whose capacity is not correspondingly upgraded to 

cope with the changing trends of migration processes. An essential crime in illegal migration 

is money laundering which is directly connected to drug trafficking which is in turn 

connected to terrorism. The whole world is affected by the whole process. It is therefore 

important for the NIS to upgrade its capacity to grapple with these challenges. It is instructive 

to note that the processes of migration does not only involve movement of people but also 

involves movement of goods, capital and ideas across geographical regions of the world.  

According to Castles (1998: 182) “international migration is an essential part of 

globalization and if governments welcome the mobility of capital, commodities and ideas, 

they are unlikely to succeed in halting the mobility of people”. 



6 

 

The dilemma of Nigeria‘s situation as regards the unlikelihood or otherwise of 

controlling the movement of people, is based on the fact that the Immigration Service is very 

weak  in capacity and in legal terms to cope with the influx of people in and out the country. 

Immigration capacity is not increasing with increasing migrations. It is therefore imperative 

that this institution must adjust its capacities to cope with the new realities. These new 

realities are the upsurge in international migration; increase in cross border crimes and 

Nigeria‘s vast and difficult borders. The building of strong institutional capacity to cope with 

these new realities is essentially the reason for undertaking this study.  

It is against this background that the study is conceived in view of the fact that 

International Migration poses some basic challenges to the Nigerian Immigration Service. 

The NIS is confronted with the porosity of Nigeria‘s borders as well as the dynamics of inter-

state migrations in Africa. There is also the huge challenge of illegal migration. This 

challenge is in two dimensions-the tremendous inflow of unwanted elements such as 

terrorists, human traffickers, drug traffickers and smugglers; and the tremendous outflow of 

needed elements in the form of brain drain and depletion of human capital. The centrality of 

international migration as a policy challenge to Nigeria cannot therefore be over emphasized. 

 

In international migration Nigeria is a major origin state. The reason can be traced to 

the introduction of Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) in Nigeria in 1986. The surge in 

imports on account of trade liberalization meant increased competition for local 

manufacturers. Many of them who could not compete were forced out of business. This of 

course affected a number of poorly managed establishments which in turn laid off their 

workers, thereby aggravating unemployment.  

The increases in tariffs of public utilities that accompanied commercialization, as well 

as the rise in interest rate on account of deregulation, all impacted negatively on cost and 

consequently, exerted pressures on prices of locally produced goods and services. Consumer 



7 

 

price resistance persisted, resulting in accumulation of inventories and a gradual decline in 

capacity utilization.  

Some structural factors that SAP could not address gave rise to massive 

unemployment. In terms of the welfare of the people, the rapidly rising prices impacted 

negatively on their standard of living. Incomes could not adjust as fast as the increasing 

inflation. Rising prices consequently, eroded the purchasing power of consumers. Worst hit 

in this respect were public sector employees whose wages lagged the most in terms of 

adjustment to rising prices. Shonekan (1998).  

 

Against this background most Nigerians especially the highly skilled who lost their 

jobs or whose income could no longer cope with their responsibilities sought greener pastures 

abroad. Even the less skilled who could no longer get menial and peripheral jobs also sought 

means of going abroad for greener pastures. This gave rise to the numerous illegal networks 

for international migration. There has been therefore massive legal and illegal emigration 

from Nigeria from the period following 1986. The problem is that these processes have 

created massive institutional demands on the NIS which in turn has not been increasing its 

institutional capacity. 

Most of the illegal migrants are deported to Nigeria creating serious problems for the 

immigration service which lacks the capacity to resettle the deportees, try the criminals 

among them, or assist them back to their home states. 

The real problem here is that the processes of globalization have made international 

migration easier and consequently there has been a tremendous increase in international 

migration. This massive increase in international migration flows with the massive and 

difficult nature of the Nigerian borders creates constant challenges to the NIS especially in 

the form of trans-border crimes. 



8 

 

Various reasons are cited for the movement of skilled individuals into or out of a 

country. These factors are generally classified into two categories, namely push factors and 

pull factors (Baruch 2007: 100). Push factors are generally associated with negative factors, 

as they are seen to drive a person out of his/her home country.  Dovlo and Martineau (2004) 

concur that push factors are influences that arise from within the source country and facilitate 

a person‘s decision to leave. Most frequently, this movement is detrimental to the country 

because it is largely skilled people who leave. In other words, people may be forced to 

emigrate to countries that they find suitable in terms of, perhaps, improved lifestyles and 

better work opportunities. These push factors cover a broad range of issues, including: 

• Crime and violence; 

• Declining education standards; 

• Economic instability; 

• Poor working conditions; 

• Poor service delivery; 

• Low income levels; and 

• Political events. 

 

As a result of the above and many other push factors, there is a large exodus of skilled 

workers as they can afford to offer their skills to other countries. This movement has negative 

consequences for Nigeria. According to Bhorat(2002), The Centre for Development and 

Enterprise (CDE) (2007: 9) and Kraak (2008: 22), there appears to be consensus that skills 

shortages are a major obstacle to economic growth and job creation. Pull factors, on the other 

hand, are positive factors that attract a person to another country (Mattes and Richmond 

2000: 32). These factors reflect the actions of receiving countries that create the demand for, 

or encourage people to leave home (Dovlo and Martineau 2004). Enhanced working 

conditions, better business prospects and increased promotion opportunities are a few factors 

that encourage skilled individuals to come to a country. Other factors include: 

• Attractive salary packages; 

• Early retirement within the education sector; 

• An opportunity to gain international work experience; 



9 

 

• Family networking; 

• Globalization; 

• An improved lifestyle; and 

• Variety of career choices ( Rogerson and Rogerson 2000). 

 

       However, in the case of a developing country, like Nigeria it also has the potential to 

attract immigrants (CDE 2008:16). Though immigrants have been coming into Nigeria in the 

form of expatriates, the number of Nigerian skilled workers that have left the country since 

1986 has been alarming. The unfortunate thing about it is that the NIS can do nothing about 

this because it lacks the legal capacity to do that. This situation has compounded Nigeria‘s 

development effort as skilled manpower is often lost to foreign lands.  

        The thesis is that the Nigeria Immigration Service is grossly overwhelmed by the 

increasing flow of cross border activities. 

 

1.2 Statement of the Problem 

The basic problem that this study wants to investigate is the inability of the Nigeria 

Immigration Service (NIS) to overwhelm the increasing trend of cross-border crimes that are 

caused by the increasing influx of  both legal and illegal immigrants through Nigerian borders 

both air, land and sea. There are numerous illegal routes and most of the immigrants 

patronize them more than the legal routes because of the criminal activities that are carried 

out through them. The men of the Nigeria Immigration Service (NIS) have not been able to 

mobilize enough men and materials to cope with the monitoring and policing of these routes 

especially the illegal ones. The problem therefore is how does the Nigeria Immigration 

Service (NIS) cope with these immigration processes which have been increasing 

geometrically at the face of inadequate manpower, inadequate material resources, borderlines 

that are not easily accessible as a result of unfriendly topography, corruption among the rank 

and file coupled with inter agency rivalry among Nigerian security agencies. 



10 

 

Migration is a highly diverse and complex phenomenon that transcends societies, 

cultures and races. It is a phenomenon that has continued to impact and contribute to the 

transformation of the entire facets of various countries changing the racial, ethnic, linguistic 

and socio-cultural composition of their population (Adeola and Ogirai, 2010; Marshall, 

2000). It is a dynamic process which affects every dimension of social existence. Studies 

have indicated that 97 percent of the world population in 2000 is not international migrants 

(UNDESA, 2005) yet, their communities and ways of life are changed by migration (Castles 

et al 2009). In the sub-Saharan Africa, it is a process which predates colonization and 

assumed greater impetus after the countries have traversed colonialism and became sovereign 

independent states. The countries were confronted with problems of integration, economic 

growth and underdevelopment, the people were also in haste of adjusting to the new realities 

brought about by self government. This of course is in response to the contact established 

with outside cultures brought about by long years of colonization and so the new aspirations 

was spectacular and the urge for modernity was high. 

       The motivation for employment and better life inspired migration within the countries 

and across borders and so cities were attracted by migration from the rural areas while 

economically developed regions became magnets of migratory destinations. In West African, 

countries such as Cote d‘Ivoire, Ghana, Senegal and Nigeria became destinations of 

international migration and Lagos and Dakar as preferred cities with teeming inflow of 

people from other parts of the sub-region. Nigeria which shares borders with francophone 

countries has to contend with influx of people from these countries and Lagos becomes the 

African metropolitan city for the citizens of these countries. 

         The economic boom of the 1970s and 80s brought about by the fortunes derived from 

the oil sector attracted increased immigrants to Nigeria from the sub-region. The Nigerian 



11 

 

border which is porous became easy access especially as members of a single ethnic group 

hold dual nationalities. As the movement was more of labour inspired, there was not much 

state reaction. However, Nigeria later started experiencing confrontations along the borders 

due to the activities of smugglers, traffickers and security challenges by the Muslim 

extremists who took the advantage of the porous borders to troop to the northern part of the 

country from Niger, Chad and northern Cameroon. At various times, some of these Muslim 

fundamentalists had declared holy war in the northern part of Nigeria. In the 90s the 

Maitasine Muslim fundamentalists and insurgency killed many innocent Nigerians before 

they were overwhelmed by the state security apparatuses. 

        At other times, in the western part of Nigeria, the menace of traffickers and smugglers 

who have turned armed criminals posing serious threat to the security of the nation has forced 

the Federal Government to make draconian laws against the affront. It got to an unbearable 

height during the administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo between 1999 and 2003 that 

the president had to close the borders with the Republic of Benin at least two times. The 

persistent and deepened cases of smuggling and trafficking in the sub-region have induced 

other heinous crimes causing serious security and political problems among the states 

(Adeola and Ogirai,2010). The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the USA have brought 

issues of migration and security   to the front burner of state diplomatic and international 

relations. The analysts have (Castles and Miller: 2009) remarked that Nigeria is among the 

radicalized Muslim countries in the world (others are the Caucasus, Somali, Yemen etc.) and 

so the threat of Al Qaida cannot be swept under the carpet. Yet, the states are bound together 

by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Charter which accepts free 

movement of the nationals of the sub-region throughout the 16 states. And like other regions 

of the world, state security will have to be integrated into legislations dealing with 

international migration and external relations. Other challenges have developed at the borders 



12 

 

where immigrants enter Nigeria with the connivance of border communities and sometimes 

agents of government. 

         Another major problem is how to tackle the issue of corrupt practices among the rank 

and file in the security services along the borders. It is a known fact that corruption is an 

endemic social problem that affects all facets of the country‘s national life. As international 

migration continues the Nigeria Immigration Service is enmeshed in corrupt practices which 

made it increasingly difficult to tackle the problem of illegal migrations. The airport, seaport 

and borders manned by the immigration officials and other State security agencies are poorly 

managed because of corruption. The idea of get-rich-quick syndrome has permeated the rank 

and file of service to the extent that integrity is thrown to the wind. This has made corruption 

to continue to thrive unabated and consequently pose serious challenge to the management of 

international migration. 

          Ironically, destination countries of North America, Europe, China and the transit 

countries of North Africa and also Europe are tightening up their borders while Nigeria which 

is source, destination and transit country remains largely weak in terms of management of 

international migration. In weak and corrupt state institutions the problem of illegal migrants 

exists unattended to. 

           Again, the porous nature of the borders is a big problem to NIS. There are many 

borders in West Africa which made border control more problematic. Nigeria Immigration 

Service lacks the capability to cope. The borders are not properly manned by the NIS. This 

may not be seen as incapability of the officers of immigration but more with the lack of more 

security gadgets and surveillance equipment. The introduction of e-Passport by the interior 

ministry was to help checkmate the forgery of Nigeria‘s official travel documents. All these 

measures in the past to curtail the movement of people both in and out of the country have 

been thwarted because there are many pathways to leave Nigeria. Of course, the ECOWAS 



13 

 

policy of free movement of citizens across the region inhibits the operation of the 

immigration service as most of the migrants from the region follow these porous borders 

without molestation. For instance, current terrorist attacks in the northern part of Nigeria are 

linked with the porous borders coupled with the ECOWAS policy. It is very difficult to 

distinguish Nigerians and other citizens from Niger Republic since Nigeria share common 

border and cultural affinity with Niger.  

 This brings us to the issue of language.  It is very difficult for the Nigerian 

immigration officers posted to the border areas where they do not understand the 

language of the people of that area. For immigration officers to be posted to a border the 

person must be able to understand the language of the people of that area. Ironically, this 

is not the case as posting are usually done based on how strongly connected one is. It is 

important for immigration officers to be bilingual to be able to communicate freely with 

people especially those from francophone countries. This is usually not taken into 

consideration while recruiting or posting to borders, airport and seaport. 

        Inadequate manpower and refusal of officers to accept posting to sensitive areas. 

According to Asiwaju (1992:32), Nigeria has over 5000 kilometers of borderline. To 

effectively monitor the borders, ten immigration officers are needed per kilometer. Therefore, 

for 5000 kilometers, Nigeria needs 50,000 officers. This does not include other institutional 

roles of the NIS. Presently, the NIS has 23,000 officers which is just 46% of the number 

required to police the borders. In the view of immigration officers, the Northern borders and 

immigration posts are not as juicy as those in the South. Therefore officers lobby to avoid 

posting to the Northern border posts. Through this process, the best of personnel are not 

posted to the Northern borders. Those who are eventually posted there see it as a punishment 

posting. The zeal to work for national interest is not there. This is the reason why security 



14 

 

challenges have mostly come from the Northern borderlines. Instances of these have ranged 

from Maitatsine, Ibrahim Zak Zaky to Boko Haram (Adesola, 2011). 

Nigeria Immigration Service capacity building is another problem area. In this, three 

aspects are involved. These are: 

 

1. Human capacity in terms of numerical strength. Nigeria Immigration Service needs 

more officers and men especially at the borders. 

2. Logistics requirement in terms of transport, communication gadgets, and security 

gadgets. If we say that these are grossly inadequate it means there are some that are 

available. The truth is that most Nigeria Immigration officers do not even know the 

names of most modern information and communications technology gadgets nor have 

they sighted them contrary to what obtains in many other countries. 

 

3. E-solution in terms of Unidentified Air Vehicles (Drones), Laser guided weapons and 

3 D cameras operating day and night at work stations, data bases, commands and 

controls. These can capture images of events and store them for three days. UAVs 

(Drones) are used in South Africa, Israel and the US. 

What it will cost the country in not providing these equipment will be greater than the 

real cost of providing them. 

Assumptions: 1. it can be assumed that if the NIS is allowed to grow in capacity 

correspondingly with increasing migration trends, it will be able to curtail trans border 

crimes. 2. The more the incapability of the NIS to carry out its institutional role, the 

more the increase in trans-border crimes. 

 

 

 

 



15 

 

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the study 

The general aim of this study is to investigate the changing trends of international 

migration in a globalized world and its challenges for the Nigerian Immigration Service. The 

specific objectives of the study are to 

i. Determine the reasons that influence immigration to Nigeria. 

ii. Examine the challenges of international migration for the Nigeria Immigration 

Service. 

iii. Explain  the operational capabilities of Nigeria Immigration Service in coping with 

the challenges of international migration 

iv.  Analyze the synergy between Nigerian security agencies in tackling the challenges 

of international migration. 

 

 

1.4. Research Questions 

i. What are the factors that cause people to migrate  to Nigeria?  

ii. What are the challenges posed by international migration to the Nigeria Immigration 

Service? 

iii. What are the operational capabilities of Nigeria Immigration Service in coping with 

the challenges of international migration? 

iv. How would security agencies establish synergy in tackling the challenges of 

international migration? 

 

1.5 Significance of the Study 

 

This study is about how the changing trends of international migration in this era of 

globalization have affected the capacity of the Nigeria Immigration Service as a state 

institution. In this regard, the study will be significant to the NIS itself because it will not 

only expose the dynamics of international migration under the aegis of globalization but will 



16 

 

also explore how the NIS as a state institution can cope with increasing migrations. It will 

therefore also be significant to other state institutions in Nigeria that are involved with 

international migration processes. The study will also be significant for the Nigerian state, as 

it will provide a policy thrust for the management of international migration. 

Nigeria is marked as a country of origin for migrants. This study will also be 

significant to other countries that are origin states like Nigeria as it will enhance their own 

capacities in managing migration processes. In this same regard, the study will be equally 

significant for other states that are transit and destination states like Nigeria, since Nigeria is 

equally a transit as well as destination state.  

Lastly, this study will be significant as an addition to existing literature in 

understanding the necessity for building strong institutions for the management of 

international migration. It is indeed a worthy addition to the existing works on migration and 

this justifies the present study. 

 

1.6  Scope and Delimitation of the Study 

 This study covers the changing trends and processes of international migration and 

how this has affected the operations of the NIS and its capacity to cope. It covers the period 

from 1986 to 2012 as well as immigration into Nigeria within the same period especially 

from her West African neighbors. Before the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP), 

migration in the country could be described as normal. But this changed with the introduction 

of SAP and the devaluation of the Naira and the consequent unemployment which gave rise 

to a tremendous increase in international migration that stretched the capacity of the NIS to 

cope.    

 

 

 



17 

 

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms 

An immigrant 

An Immigrant is a person who has citizenship in one country but who enters a different 

country to set up a permanent residence. In order to be an immigrant you must have 

citizenship in one country, and you must have gone to a different country with the specific 

intention of living there. 

Immigration is the introduction of new people into a habitat or population. It is a biological 

concept and is important in population ecology, differentiated from emigration and migration.   

Immigration is the arrival of new individuals into a habitat or population.  

Boundaries and borderlines 

 Boundaries and borderlines are systems features. That is they are features of a state system. 

A state is part of the international system. Every state in the international system has 

boundaries and borderlines which demarcate them as territorial entities. Boundaries indicate 

the limits of a system as a unit. As a concept, it connotes restrictiveness and distinctiveness. 

If rigidly adhered to, thereby not permitting overlaps or any form of interaction with the 

environment, we have a closed system. Borderlines on the other hand indicate common areas 

which a system shares with the neighboring countries. It indicates overlaps, which could be 

wide or narrow. 

National Security  

Security has to do with freedom from danger or with threats to a nation‘s stability to protect 

and develop itself, promote its cherished values and legitimate interest and enhance the well-

being of its people. National security is the ability of a nation to protect its internal values 

from internal and external threats. 

 

 

 



18 

 

Human trafficking:  

Human trafficking is modern day slavery and is the fastest growing criminal industry in the 

world. It involves irregular migration for the movement of trafficked victims. It is the forced 

or coercive recruitment, transportation, harboring, or deception for the purpose of exploiting 

the victims. It deprives people of their human rights and freedoms, it is a global health risk, 

and it fuels organized crime. 

Illegal Migration: 

Illegal migration is a process that violates countries immigration policies. It is an unlawful 

entry into another land by violating their immigration laws and due process either knowingly 

or otherwise. 

An institution is any structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation governing the 

behavior of a set of individuals within a given community — may it be human or a specific 

animal one. Institutions are identified with a social purpose, transcending individuals and 

intentions by mediating the rules that govern cooperative living behavior.  

The term "institution" is commonly applied to customs and behavior patterns important to a 

society, as well as to particular formal organizations of government and public services. As 

structures and mechanisms of social order among certain species, institutions are one of the 

principal objects of study in the social sciences, such as political science, anthropology, 

economics, and sociology. Institutions are also a central concern for law, the formal 

mechanism for political rule-making and enforcement. 

 

 



19 

 

1.8 The Nigeria Immigration Service 

Introducing the Service 

 The Nigeria Immigration Service (NIS) was extracted from the Nigeria Police Force (NPF) 

in 1958. Since then, the service has gone through series of transformation. The Immigration 

Department, as it was known then, was entrusted with the core immigration duties under the 

headship of the Chief Federal Immigration Officer (CFIO) Mr. E. H. Harrison. The 

department in its emergent stage inherited the Immigration Ordinance of 1958 for its 

operation. At inception, the department had a narrow operational scope and maintained a low 

profile and simple approach in attaining the desired goals and objectives of the government. 

During this period, only the Visa and Business Sections were set up. 

On August 1st, 1963, Immigration Department came of age when it was formally 

established by an Act of Parliament ( Cap 171, Laws of the Federation Nigeria ). The head of 

the department then was the Director of Immigration. Thus, the first set of Immigration 

officers were former NPF Officers. It became a  department under the control and supervision 

of the Federal Ministry of Internal Affairs ( FMIA ) as a Civil Service outfit. Since that time 

the service has come a long way in its march toward reformations and restructuring to be 

better positioned for the implementation of modern migration management. 

 

The structure has been changed to accommodate added responsibilities as well as 

emerging regional and sub-regional political alignments. The implication was the 

introduction of the ECOWAS and African affairs/bilateral division. Similarly aliens control 

and border patrol management were added to the responsibilities of the service. Furthermore, 

the service was saddled with the responsibility for the issuance of all Nigerian travel 

documents. The service embraced the use of ICT in its operations with the introduction of the 

Combined Expatriate Residence Permit and Aliens card (CERPAC). Ever since, the service 

has taken giant strides in the use of ICT in its processes and operational procedures, notably 



20 

 

the introduction of online payment for its facilities, in other words e-revenue collections by 

the service popularized this mode of revenue collection, leading it to become a Federal 

Government policy. Earlier on the Service created a website with the domain name 

www.immigration.gov.ng This was in a bid to create a platform for interaction and 

dissemination of information about its operations to a wide ranging clientele.  

 

The introduction of machine readable electronic passports in 2007 was a landmark 

achievement by the service in that Nigeria became the first country in Africa to introduce the 

e-passport and among the first forty countries in the world to do so. The embrace of the e-

passport has become a major tool in the fight against trans border criminality as the e-

passport contains the biometric details of holders thus making it easy for detection of persons 

traveling under false identities or compromised travel documents especially as the service is 

poised to introduce the Passport Scanners at our borders which has been approved by the 

Federal Government of Nigeria. In due recognition of Nigeria Immigration Service‘s stride as 

exemplified above, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) the global body that 

regulates standards for travel documents admitted Nigeria into its board as the sole African 

representative. Currently the country is cutting over Machine Readable Passports (MRP) to 

the electronic passport (e-passport) which initial deadline was December 2010 but later 

extended to April 2011. It was introduced on the 7th of July, 2007, and intended to be rolled 

out December, 2010. 

As a result of the above development, e-passport machines have been installed in all 

the states of the federation and some missions abroad while efforts are still ongoing to deploy 

e-passport machines to all our missions abroad, the Nigeria Immigration Service has been 

sending its personnel for passport intervention to all regions of the world in line with the 

Federal Government foreign policy of citizen diplomacy. This implies taking the mobile 

passport issuing equipments to acquire and process passport for Nigerians in Diaspora. 



21 

 

Another significant achievement in the realm of ICT development is the establishment 

of a well equipped forensic laboratory for the examination of travel documents and monetary 

instruments. It is also to be noted that NIS personnel manning this laboratory are highly 

skilled due to the fact that they have been exposed to a lot of trainings locally and 

internationally on document fraud detection and techniques. The NIS is entrusted with core 

immigration duties, mainly the determination of migration status and issuance of visas. Its 

two major mission statements are as follows: 

• to have an information technology-driven security outfit that can conveniently address 

the operational challenges of modern migration; 

• to give the Service a new sense of direction that can make it relevant at all times to the 

world security order and global trends. 

The following are those that have led the immigration service right from inception to date: 

1. Mr E. A. Harrison 1962-1966 

2. Mr. J. E. Onubogu 1966-1967 

3. Mr. I. Aleyedeino 1967-1976 

4. Mr. Aliyu Muhammed 1977-1979 

5. Mr. Lawal Sambo 1979-1985 

6. Mr. Muhammed Damulak 1985-1990 

7. Mr. Garba Abbas 1990-1995 

8. Sahabi Abubakar Dange 1995-1999 

9. U. K. Umar in acting capacity 1999-2000 

10. Lady U. C. Nwizu 2000-2004 

11. Mr. M. A. Baraya in acting capacity 2004-2005 

12. Mr. C. J. Udeh 2005-2010 

13. Mrs. Rose Chinyere Uzoma 2010-2013 

14. Mr. R. B. Musa in acting capacity 2013-2013 

15. Mr. D. S. Paradang 2013-date 

 

 

 



22 

 

Organizational Structure  

 The service headquarters of the NIS is at Abuja. The head of the NIS is a Comptroller 

General. There are seven Directorates each headed by a Deputy Comptroller General. 

According to circular number OHCSF/MSO/623/T./93 of 24th November, 2011 and 

NIS/HQ/ADM/10/T of 6th January, 2012 was restructured into seven Directorates. 

Consequently, the Nigeria Immigration Service was restructured into the following seven 

Directorates: 

1. Finance and Accounts 

2. Human Resources Management  

3. Works and procurement  

4. Planning Research and Statistics 

5. Operations and Passports 

6. Border Patrol, ECOWAS and African Affairs and 

7. Investigation, Inspectorate and Enforcement. 

 

             Approval has also been given for the following units under the Comptroller General's 

Office: 

1. Legal 

2. Internal Audit 

3. Reforms (Transparency, Anti-Corruption and Servicom)  

4. Internal Security (Provost Marshall) and  

5. Press and Public Relations. 

 

 Mr. President in addition to the above also approved as follows: 

1.   The retention of the eight (8) zonal structure of the service 

2. That six additional commands be carved out of the existing Lagos Command 

3. That additional passport offices be established in Ikeja and Area 1 Garki under Lagos and 

FCT commands respectively 



23 

 

4. That additional control posts be created along the North West and North East Zones to 

check infiltration of the country by foreigners 

5. That some fees and charges for immigration law regulations be increased. 

            As we have units under the Comptroller General at the Service Headquarters, there 

are also units under the Directorates. The Directorates are headed by Deputy Comptrollers 

General. Under the DCG Finance and Accounts there are three Divisions headed by Assistant 

Comptrollers General namely: 

1. Accounts Division 

2. Budget Division 

3. Revenue Division 

     Under the Human Resources Management Directorate, there are three Divisions each 

headed by an Assistant Comptroller General namely: 

1. Administration and Personnel Division 

2. Staff Welfare and Gender 

3. Training and Staff. 

 

        Under the Operations and Passport Directorate, there are five Divisions. All Divisions in 

all the Directorates are headed by Assistant Comptrollers General. The divisions under this 

Directorate are namely: 

1. Visa/Entry Permit  

2. Residence Card (Combined Expatriate Residence Permit and Aliens Card-CERPAC) 

3. State Coordination 

4. Standard Passport 

5. Other Travel Documents 

 

 



24 

 

        Under Border Patrol, ECOWAS and African Affairs, there four Divisions namely: 

1. Land Border Division 

2. Marine Border 

3. Air Border Patrol 

4. ECOWAS and African Affairs. 

           There are two Divisions under Works and Procurement namely: 

1. Works and  

2. Procurement  

         In investigation, Inspectorate and Enforcement Directorate there are four Divisions 

namely:  

1. Investigation and Intelligence 

2. Anti Human Trafficking  

3. Inspectorate and Enforcement  

4. Migrations and Aliens 

 

          Also in Planning, Research and Statistics Directorate there are three Divisions namely: 

1. Planning 

2. Research  

3. ICT. 

 There are eight zonal commands each headed by an Assistant Comptroller General. The 

Zonal offices are located at Lagos, Kaduna, Bauchi, Minna, Owerri, Ibadan, Benin, and 

Makurdi. There are forty State Commands all over Nigeria. There is one in each State and 

The FCT. There five in Lagos presently as against the approved six. The State Commands 

come under the Zonal headquarters. In each local government area of each State there are 

local government immigration offices headed by Divisional Immigration officers. So in each 



25 

 

of the 774 local governments of Nigeria, there are immigration offices. Immigration has 

control posts at all the legally permitted border posts in Nigeria. The NIS men also take 

charge of any suspected illegal route. 

         The institutional responsibility of the NIS is to maintain Nigeria's border security. This 

means that the NIS has the responsibility of making Nigeria free of security challenges from 

immigrants. To this effect, the NIS is deeply involved with the Joint Task Force (JTF) that is 

fighting to repel Boko Haram terrorists that operate mostly from across Nigeria's border in 

the North East. This point is buttressed with Circular number NIS/HQ/ADM/10/T of 25th 

January, 2012 titled "Strengthening Security at our Formations/Facilities". In this circular, the 

Comptroller General of the NIS has this to say "you are all aware of the recent security 

challenges facing our country and the NIS from the threats of the Boko Haram Sect. Of 

recent, there have been bomb attacks on our offices in Damaturu and Kano, in which the 

service lost Officers, Properties and several others wounded. The unpredictability of these 

attacks and their ever expanding theatre of war, calls for renewed vigorous efforts in all our 

formations to improve our security. 

        It is strongly believed that the NIS has become a target of these attacks because of its 

role in the recent closing of borders, biometric registration of non Nigerians, repatriation of 

illegal immigrants ( perhaps adherents of the Boko Haram Sect), and participation in JTF 

operations. 

         Following the Top Emergency Management meeting held on Monday, 23rd January, 

2012' the Comptroller General of Immigration directed as follows: 

1. That zonal/State Commands and Training Institutions should deploy at least, 30% of their 

junior officers to secure our buildings and facilities in their respective commands, 

particularly the Passport Offices. 



26 

 

2. That all Officers/men should be sensitized on the current security challenges to ensure 

that they are conscious of their environments. 

3. That Zones/Commands and Training Institutions should submit security and intelligence 

reports on monthly basis to the Service Headquarters, indicating current intelligence 

information concerning their areas of jurisdiction. 

4. That officers deployed to all the Local Government Area Offices should be rendering 

frequent security reports to their Comptrollers. 

5. That all officers and men should acquire whistles to alert others in case of emergencies. 

6. That all Commands should strategize on quick response to attacks especially at the 

borderlines. 

7. That the list of all untrained junior officers should be forwarded to SHQ without further 

delay for necessary action.  

Problem of Cross border crime of Terrorism as the major security challenge to the NIS. It 

has been a long time problem from across the borders that religious fundamentalists have 

launched attacks on Nigerian populations from across the borders. It has ranged from 

Maitatsine, Ibrahim Zak Zakky to Boko Haram. Some have claimed to be the Khalifa using 

religion as a tool to achieve political goals. The present menace is the Boko Haram 

fundamentalist terrorist group. This can be attested to by some official documents: 

1. ABJ/HQ/OPS/731/T of 3rd May, 2012 titled Boko Haram Liaison With the Tuareg 

Rebels of Northern Mali. In this circular, the CGIS said that information reaching the 

office indicates that during the takeover of Northern Mali by the Tuaregs, substantial 

number of Boko Haram Trainees were spotted in that region. Boko Haram elements 

numbering more than two hundred (200), were reported to have fought alongside the 

Tuaregs during the capture of the City of Gao. Most of the Boko Haram operatives are 

from Kano and only a few are from Niger Republic. However, the eventual return of 



27 

 

Boko Haram operatives to Nigeria portends a serious national security challenge. It is 

expected that the Tuareg fighters if allowed to settle in Northern Mali, would lend support 

on quid pro quo basis to Boko Haram activities in Nigeria. In view of the above, you are 

expected to exercise extra vigilance to prevent the infiltration of black and white-skinned 

Arabs who may seek entrance into the country. 

2. ABJ/HQ/OPS/1009/T of 7th May, 2012 titled Security Alert. In this circular, the CGIS 

referred to the Security Alert from the office of the Inspector General of Police, Ref: letter 

CB.0900/IGP SEC/ABJ/VOL.56/661 of 3rd May, 2012 and to draw your attention to the 

contents in which planned attacks of border areas, commercial centres and market places 

where huge cash transactions take place are targets of terrorist and criminal elements. 

Also, smuggling of Arms and Ammunitions with the involvement of citizens of 

neighboring countries across the borders to Nigeria is part of their nefarious activities. In 

view of above, you are to reinforce the presence of your officers/men and beef up security 

in your border area and environs, intensify intelligence gathering and prepare your 

personnel for support operation with other Security Agencies to counter such attacks 

when necessary. Treat as important, while remaining vigilant with a view to reporting 

suspicious movements to the appropriate authorities and situation reports promptly 

forwarded to the Service Headquarters for further necessary actions.  

3. IMM/ABJ/NV/8309/Vol.1/23 of 26th June, 2012 titled Plans by the Boko Haram Sect to 

Smuggle Arms Ammunition and Improvised Explosive Devices (IED) Components into 

Nigeria. Here the Deputy Comptroller General for Investigation informs of the receipt of 

a security alert on concluded plans by the Boko Haram Sect and its external affiliates to 

smuggle large quantities of arms, Ammunitions and IEDs components from Mali and 

Ivory Coast from 14th June, 2012. The Sect's operatives from Mali are expected to pass 

through Maje-Kontagora-Birnin-Gwari to Abuja. The arms and Ammunitions to be 



28 

 

transported along the Maje-Kontagora axis will be concealed in a truck loaded with 

second hand clothing.  The operatives coming from Côte d'Ivoire are expected to pass 

through Ghana, Togo up to Idiroko in Ogun State, Nigeria. In view of this, the 

Comptroller General directs that our officers and men along these designated routes be 

put on high alert. In view of the looming danger this threat poses to national security, 

there is need to strengthen our border control management mechanism. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



29 

 

CHAPTER TWO      LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

2.1 Literature Review 

Adedeji Ebo (2008) seeks to explore specific challenges as well as discernible 

opportunities for parliamentary oversight of the security sector in West Africa. It provides an 

overview of the performance of selected West African parliaments in the area of security 

sector oversight, based on a compilation of country studies from Benin, Cape Verde, Ghana, 

Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. 

Two main criteria informed the selection of countries covered in this volume: the 

different political contexts in West Africa (fragile, post-conflict and consolidating states) and 

the diverse colonial influences of Anglophone, Francophone and Lusophone countries in the 

sub-region. The book also takes the sub-regional dimension of the issue into account by 

analyzing the growing role played by the Parliament of the Economic Community of West 

African States (ECOWAS) in security sector governance. 

While identifying good practices in parliamentary oversight of the security sector, this 

book provides parliamentarians, policy makers and other practitioners with a number of 

solutions for improving the quality of parliamentary oversight of the security sector in West 

Africa.  

Adeola and Fayomi (2012) reveal that International migration between Nigeria and 

her neighbors has been a source of concern in the formulation and articulation of diplomatic 

and foreign policy of the nation. The porosity of Nigerian borders has made it possible for 

unwarranted influx of migrants from neighboring States to enter the country illegally from 

such countries as Republic of Niger, Chad and Republic of Benin. This paper explores the 

process of migration between Nigeria and her neighbors when the issue has served as a basis 



30 

 

of determining the foreign policy direction of the State. Also, it explores the political and 

diplomatic consequences and impact of such a policy to eradicating international terrorism, 

criminality and smuggling which have become intractable. This work gives a very good 

insight to the challenges of immigration from Nigeria's neighbors. However, these three 

mentioned countries are not the only sources of unwanted immigrants to Nigeria. Nigeria 

experiences both economic, political and security challenges from unwanted immigrants from 

other areas like Mali, Ghana, Cameroon among others as this present work has shown. 

Adepoju (2004) provides an overview of several trends that will continue to provide 

African policy makers with the difficult task of addressing migration complexities. The paper 

addresses the following trends:  (1) feminization of migration; (2) diversification of migration 

destinations; (3) transformation of labour flows into commercial migration; (4) brain drain 

from the region; (5) human trafficking, especially of women and children; (6) spreading of 

AIDS; and (7) the role of regional economic organizations in fostering free flows of labour. 

The work offers no concrete solutions. However, he argues that protocols cannot address the 

free movement of people unless key stakeholders eliminate political and endemic conflicts. 

Without this effort, sustainable development and security cannot effectively address Africa‘s 

migration challenges. In providing these several trends the scholar has ignored the role of the 

NIS in the process of international migration. It is this gap that this present work has filled. 

Adepoju (2007) says that the migration trends highlighted in this paper include 

complex patterns involving internal, cross-border, intra- and interregional mobility, as well as 

emigration from Africa. These movement patterns can be further dissected by South-South 

migration, South-North migration, rural-rural migration, and rural-urban migration. The 

author also addresses the increasing feminization of migration and its effect on the families 

left behind. The author provides a thorough overview of these different migration patterns, 

causes and effects, role of remittances and Diaspora, trafficking trends, and expected 



31 

 

development trends. He concludes by highlighting the challenge of balancing the aging 

populations in the North with the increasing population growth in sub-Saharan Africa. This 

complexity will create overwhelmingly difficult challenges for shaping development policies 

going forward. This scholar has also failed to link these migrations to the institutional 

responsibility of the NIS in managing international migration as it concerns Nigeria. 

Adepoju (2008) argues that increasing population growth is at the root of international 

migration due to its linkages with unemployment and labour force growth. The large numbers 

of youth have added to the growing pool of unemployed and underemployed workers. He 

stresses that governments play a critical role in designing appropriate employment 

opportunities so that the youth can contribute economically, socially, and politically, thus 

offsetting the growing incidence of irregular migration, trafficking, drug abuse and violence. 

He also suggests that government must invest in raising female literacy due to its impact on 

the health and nutritional status of families. He concludes by arguing that the responsibility 

for fighting poverty should be borne by the government in partnership with communities and 

families at the grassroots level and argues that the path to ending poverty is through improved 

education and access to employment. The author does not give us an insight on how these 

illegal migrations can be curtailed by the NIS. It is this lacuna that this present work has 

done. 

          Alan Bryden (2008) intended to contribute to confidence and peace-building through 

developing a better understanding of the challenges of security sector governance and 

generating practical policy recommendations based on work conducted by West African 

experts. It analyses the nature of security sector governance in each of the 16 West African 

states, provides an assessment of the effectiveness of governance mechanisms, in particular 

relating to democratic oversight of the security sector, and takes into account the regional and 



32 

 

international dimensions to the issue. This book will be very relevant to security in West 

African because it captures the very essence of West African security. 

Beggts (2008) observes that despite the inherently trans-boundary nature of 

international migration and the interdependence of states‘ migration policies, there is no 

formal multilateral institutional framework regulating states‘ responses to international 

migration. There is no UN Migration Organization and no international migration regime, 

and sovereign states retain a significant degree of autonomy in determining their migration 

policies. International migration divides into a range of different policy categories: low-

skilled labor migration, high-skilled labor migration, irregular migration, international travel, 

lifestyle migration, environmental migration, human trafficking and smuggling, asylum and 

refugee protection, internally displaced people, Diaspora, remittances, and root causes. Each 

of these is regulated differently at the global level. They vary along a spectrum in terms of the 

degree of formal institutional cooperation that exists – from asylum and refugee protection, 

which has a formal regime and a UN organization, to labor migration, which is largely 

unregulated at the global level. Yet, overall, the degree of institutionalized cooperation that 

exists in all of these areas is relatively limited in comparison to many other trans-boundary 

issue-areas. Beggts has largely ignored the issues of migration as it concerns Nigeria which is 

a major origin country for migrants. This work wants to contribute to knowledge by 

providing migration data from Nigeria. 

Cross (2006) address migration flows between countries and regions within Africa. 

They collectively acknowledge the trend that an increasing number of Africans are migrating 

from rural to urban centers. However, they argue that African countries have not yet 

prioritized migration at the top of their policy agenda. Therefore, they support promoting and 

disseminating better research data, increasing capacity building efforts, mobilizing 

government resources, and sharing expertise in the field in an effort to work toward 



33 

 

guidelines that can better shape African migration policies. These scholars have only 

concentrated on policies while ignoring what happens in the field with the immigration 

services of the various states. 

Frédéric and Rapoport (2004) focus on the consequences of skilled migration for 

source (developing) countries. They first present new evidence on the magnitude of the 

―brain drain‖ at the international level. Using a unified stylized model of education 

investment in a context of migration, they then survey the theoretical and empirical literature 

on the impact of highly-skilled emigration on human capital formation in developing 

countries. Finally they use a particular specification of the model to discuss possible 

implications of skilled emigration for migration, education and taxation policy. 

De Haas (2008) aims to put the debate on migration and development in a broader 

historical perspective of migration theory in particular and social theory in general. The 

scholarly debate on migration and development has tended to swing back and forth like a 

pendulum, from developmentalist optimism in the 1950s and 1960s, to structuralist and neo-

Marxist pessimism and skepticism over the 1970s and 1980s, to more nuanced views 

influenced by the new economics of labour migration, ―livelihood‖ approaches and the 

transnational turn in migration studies as of the 1990s. Such discursive shifts in the scholarly 

debate on migration and development should be primarily seen as part of more general 

paradigm shifts in social theory. The shift that occurred over the 1990s was part of a more 

general shift away from grand structuralist or functionalist theories towards more pluralist, 

hybrid and structuralist approaches attempting to reconcile structure and actor perspectives. 

However, attempts to combine different theoretical perspectives are more problematic than 

sometimes suggested due to incommensurability issues and associated disciplinary divisions. 



34 

 

Since 2000, there has been a remarkable, and rather sudden, renaissance of optimistic views, 

in particular in the policy debate, as well as a boom in empirical work on migration and 

development. This has coincided with the rediscovery of remittances as a ―bottom up‖ source 

of development finance and the celebration of the transnational engagement of migrants with 

the development of their origin societies. However, such optimism has tended to go along 

with a striking level of amnesia of decades of prior research. Migration and development is 

anything but a new topic. The accumulated empirical and theoretical evidence stress the 

fundamentally heterogeneous nature of migration- development interactions as well as their 

contingency on spatial and temporal scales of analysis and more general processes of social 

and economic change, which should forestall any blanket assertions on migration-

development interactions. 

Current policy and scholarly discourses naively celebrating migration, remittances 

and transnational engagement as self-help development ―from below‖ also shift attention 

away from the relevance of structural constraints and the important role states and other 

institutions play in shaping favorable general conditions for social and economic 

development to occur. This raises the fundamental question whether the recent shift towards 

optimistic views reflects a veritable change in (increasingly trans-nationally framed) 

migration-development interactions, the use of other methodological and analytical tools, or 

is rather the deductive echo of a general paradigm shift from dependency and state-centrist to 

neoliberal and neoclassical views in general. 

The lack of theoretical rootedness and largely descriptive nature of much empirical 

work has haunted the improvement of theories. As a result of the general lack of a common 

theoretical thread, most empirical work – especially from outside migration economics – 

remains isolated, scattered, and theoretically under-explored. Real progress in the 

understanding of the factors determining the fundamental heterogeneity of migration and 



35 

 

development interactions is only possible if more empirical work is designed to test 

theoretically derived hypotheses and, hence, to improve the generalized understanding of 

migration-development interactions. 

Hannah Cross (2014) says that people from West Africa are risking their lives and 

surrendering their citizenship rights to enter exploitative labour markets in Europe. This book 

offers an explanation for this phenomenon that is based on close analysis of the contradictory 

economic and political agendas that create and constrain labour migration. It shows how 

global capitalism regulates different stages of the process within an interconnected system of 

economic dispossession, the construction of an illegal status, border control, labour 

exploitation and processes of underdevelopment. This is summarized as a regime of ‗unfree 

labour mobility‘. 

Combined with structural and historical approaches, this book is based on 

ethnographic research. It incorporates those who are left behind, those who decide to stay, 

migrants who fail and those who are on the move, alongside clustered migrant communities 

in Senegal, Mauritania and Spain. The book‘s panoramic approach shows how West African 

‗step-wise‘ journeys to Europe by land and sea sees competing territorial and economic 

policies regulating an unstable and unpredictable trajectory, creating ‗illegal‘ labour through 

dual logics of border security and selective labour mobility. 

This book demonstrates that the diverse channels through which people migrate in the 

modern era are mediated by European states and labour markets, which utilize border regimes 

to control labour and be globally competitive. The themes and patterns that emerge, in their 

context of inter-generational change, present a challenge to the accepted wisdom about the 

individual and household dynamics of labour migration. This book is of interest to students 

and scholars of migration, trans-nationalism, politics, security, development, economics, and 

sociology." 



36 

 

Makinwa (1987) claims that Nigeria, the largest country in Western Africa, has been 

attracting migrants from neighboring countries for the past decade. Although most of the 

movement of African migrants has occurred outside the regulatory framework set up to 

control migration, it is important to know the main elements of the latter to understand the 

likely limitations of the data collection systems currently in operation. Sources of data on 

international migration include censuses, arrival and departure statistics, work and resident 

permits, and sample surveys. The author concludes that, with the exception of information on 

residence and work permits, the relationship between Nigeria's data sources and the laws 

regulating migration is weak. Arrival and departure statistics, in particular, are not designed 

to distinguish migrants from all other international travelers. Lacking the political will to 

modify the system in accordance with internationally accepted recommendations, the 

prospects for increasing the usefulness of available data are grim. Makinwa focuses only on 

immigrants but we are going to add to this the emigration aspect of migration.  

Mutume (2006) addresses the complex issues of migration as it relates to the 

phenomenon of ―globalization,‖ whereby information, commodities, and money flow freely 

between national boundaries. However, this does not mean that migrants have the same 

ability. He notes that policymakers are grappling with this disparity, as globalization has not 

led to the creation of sustainable job opportunities, especially in rural sub-Saharan Africa. 

With the increase in international migration, he argues that development policies should 

provide benefits to both industrial and developing nations to spur economic growth. By doing 

so, migrants would be able to send remittances home and work their way out of poverty. He 

concludes by noting that migration can be positive for migrants, for their destination, and for 

the homes they leave behind. Mutume has not done much to connect the so called benefits of 

migration  to the reasons that influence people to migrate. 



37 

 

OECD (2001) in four sections presents the analysis of the main trends in international 

migration. The first looks at changes in migration movements and in the foreign population 

of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) member countries. 

The second section reviews policies to regulate and control flows and the whole range of 

measures to promote the integration of migrants in host countries. It also describes recent 

moves to enhance cooperation between host countries and countries of origin in the spheres 

of migration and development. 

Ogbeide (2011) states that in recent times, terrorism has become one of the most 

dangerous threats to peace and order nationally and globally. It is so pervasive that no 

country on earth can claim immunity from its violent acts of bombing, shooting, armed 

robbery, kidnapping, hostage-taking and bank robbery. This paper examines this global 

human phenomenon through the analysis of its various definitions, its nature and 

consequences. Based on the analysis, the paper proffers a ten-point policy recommendation 

for enhancing the existing instruments and frameworks in the security services that would 

foster inter- agency cooperation in combating terrorism in Nigeria. 

Olayinka and Olutayo (2012) says that although international migration has received 

significant attention in literature, this is usually in respect of development and remittances. 

Methodological issues on the subject are very scarce more so relative to the interface of 

kinship and international return migration. Yet methodological issues remain crucial to useful 

understanding of the processes and dynamics of the problem. The paper relied on the authors‘ 

methodological experiences while undertaking research among international returnees and 

their kin in Nigeria. It concludes that it is impossible to successfully research international 

migration, especially return, within kinship frameworks, for sustainable development in 

developing nations without deploying original, innovative nuanced and context specific 



38 

 

research methodology like the one adopted in this article. What these scholars have failed to 

do is link return migration to emigration for their work to be well understood.  

Oli Brown (2008) says that traditionally seen as an environmental and an energy 

issue, climate change is now also being cast as a threat to international peace and security. 

Africa, though the least responsible for greenhouse gas emissions, is seen as the continent 

most likely to suffer its worst consequences—a function of the continent‘s reliance on 

climate-dependent sectors (such as rain-fed agriculture) and its history of resource, ethnic and 

political conflict. 

The security implications of climate change have become the subject of 

unprecedented international attention; in 2007 climate change was the focus of both a 

Security Council debate and the Nobel Peace Prize. There have been some attempts to 

construct scenarios of the ways in which warming temperatures might undermine security at 

a global scale. But the country-level security impacts of climate change have been lost in the 

political rhetoric. Local experts are rarely consulted. This book has helped to address the 

issue of demographic and environmental concerns of international migration in West Africa. 

This paper is a modest effort to address this research gap. Drawing on field visits and 

consultations with local experts, this paper explores the extent to which climate change may 

undermine security in two different countries in West Africa, Ghana and Burkina Faso. 

Omelaniuk (2005) addresses migration pattern and expands the study by examining 

the circumstances of women left at home. To this point, she addresses the need to compare 

the livelihood impacts of females in host countries with those females remaining behind. 

Although she notes positive impacts of female migration on poverty is minimal, migration 

can indirectly help alleviate poverty by raising productivity, education, and health of females 

and their families. However, she contends that more data is needed about gender analyses to 



39 

 

better understand the benefits of migration for poverty reduction and the specific 

contributions provided by females and males. With this information, origin and destination 

countries can develop more inclusive policies that incorporate women with different 

migration patterns. 

Parrenas (2001) says that Servants of Globalization is a poignant and often troubling 

study of migrant Filipino domestic workers who leave their own families behind to do the 

mothering and care-taking work of the global economy in countries throughout the world. It 

specifically focuses on the emergence of parallel lives among such workers in the cities of 

Rome and Los Angeles, two main destinations for Filipino migration. 

The book is largely based on interviews with domestic workers, but the book also 

powerfully portrays the larger economic picture as domestic workers from developing 

countries increasingly come to perform the menial labor of the global economy. This is often 

done at great cost to the relations with their own split-apart families. The experiences of 

migrant Filipino domestic workers are also shown to entail a feeling of exclusion from their 

host society, a downward mobility from their professional jobs in the Philippines, and an 

encounter with both solidarity and competition from other migrant workers in their 

communities. 

The author applies a new theoretical lens to the study of migration—the level of the 

subject, moving away from the two dominant theoretical models in migration literature, the 

macro and the intermediate. At the same time, she analyzes the three spatial terrains of the 

various institutions that migrant Filipino domestic workers inhabit—the local, the 

transnational, and the global. She draws upon the literature of international migration, 

sociology of the family, women's work, and cultural studies to illustrate the reconfiguration 

of the family community and social identity in migration and globalization. The book shows 



40 

 

how globalization not only propels the migration of Filipino domestic workers but also 

results in the formation of parallel realities among them in cities with greatly different 

contexts of reception. 

Roger (1998) discusses perspectives of local agency in the age of the world city. It 

presents a brief critique of the debate on globalization and posits that globalization makes 

states. This includes a discussion of the local state as a complex creature of state and civil 

society, of the regulatory power of the urban and of the world city as a site of the emergence 

of the post national state. While it can be argued that globalization hollows out the state and 

helps facilitate the replacement of state by non-state institutions in the market or civil society, 

it also creates new forms of states. The state does not wither away but is rather reincarnated 

in a plethora of forms on many socio-spatial scales. Globalization makes states but these 

differ from the ones we used to know. States no longer seem to be absolute control of 

governmental processes because globalization goes beyond the power of an individual state 

to control. This article concentrates on those new forms of governance that occur on the 

urban level, particularly in so-called world or global cities. It makes the case for the 

recognition of the urban as a relevant site of the political in the era of globalization. Politics 

in the world cities is concerned with the governance of complexity which can be understood 

best through a combination of regime theory, regulation theory and discuss theory.  

Russell (2012) reviews the various types of migration, and emphasizes the need for an 

interdisciplinary approach to the study and theorization of migration. In the main part of the 

paper the author provides a personalized overview of theories of international migration, 

divided into the following sections: push-pull theory and the neoclassical approach; migration 

and development transitions; historical-structural and political economy models; the role of 

systems and networks; the ‗new economics‘ of migration; and finally approaches based on 

the ‗transnational turn‘ in migration studies. In the conclusion he points up some future 



41 

 

challenges to theorizing migration: the need to embed the study of migration within global 

processes of social, economic and political transformation and within the biographies of 

migrants‘ life-courses; the importance of also explaining why people do not migrate, and the 

notion of access to mobility as a differentiating factor of class and inequality; and the 

relevance of existential and emotional dimensions of migration. The paper is explicitly aimed 

at a student audience and is intended as a primer to understanding some of the complexities 

and challenges of theorizing migration. 

Stephen (2000) claims that at the beginning of the 1990s, migration suddenly took a 

prominent place on the international political agenda: the upheavals surrounding the collapse 

of the Soviet bloc led to uncontrolled influxes of irregular migrants and asylum-seekers to 

Western Europe and North America. The result was a flurry of diplomatic activity and 

international meetings, leading to stricter border controls and attempts to limit certain types 

of mobility. By the late 1990s, it became clear that the mass migrations would not eventuate 

and migration was once again seen as a secondary issue in western countries. However, in 

East Asia, the financial crisis of 1997-99 led to a similar politicization of migration, with 

migrants being blamed for economic and social problems. Attempts at mass deportation and 

stricter border control were made, with limited success. 

Tanner (2007) argues against the positive aspects of emigration. He agrees that 

emigration would continue and could be somewhat beneficial. However, he argues that 

highly skilled labour movement out of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has devastating 

consequences on the overall development of the region. He examines case studies in Malawi, 

Tanzania, and Zimbabwe and draws thought-provoking conclusions of emigration trends. For 

example, with the emigration of physicians from Malawi, the health care system has become 

severely crippled in the fight against HIV/AIDS. This leaves a large hole in HIV prevention 

as sub-Saharans tend not to return, as remittances are erratic and do not offset emigration 



42 

 

costs. To reverse this trend, he concludes with recommendations for specific policies that 

target foreign development aid to mitigate the negative consequences of SSA‘s ―brain drain.‖ 

Truong (2006) investigates the boundary between migration and human trafficking 

from the dual perspectives of governance and poverty, and offers some insights into 

rethinking best practices. Her academic research indicates that the framework of migration 

management is bifurcated into ―trade-connected mobility,‖ which is protected by 

government, and ―mobility to sustain livelihood,‖ which is subject to punitive measures with 

limited scope to protect human rights. With the rise of migration of women, children, and 

young people in a growing population, human trafficking issues have increased and will put 

added stress on infrastructure and policy-makers. She suggests a human rights approach to 

migration management and concludes that new best practice concepts need to address 

alternative governance approaches toward human rights (especially migration management, 

crime, labour standards, poverty reduction, and communities at risk) since current protection 

has variant policies depending on what people, which location, and what interest is involved. 

Van Blerk (2008) has taken an unconventional approach to understanding migrating 

youth, marginalized through poverty. By drawing on interviews with sixty young female sex 

workers in Ethiopia, she demonstrates that sex work may be a risky and vulnerable option, 

but often provides independence for rural-to-urban female migrants. This is not to say that 

she believes in this manner of employment as a means to independence. In fact, she argues 

that sex work in Ethiopia is extremely risky with no legal protection. However, her research 

demonstrates that sex work can provide a successful transition to adulthood. She concludes 

by stating that policymakers need to learn more about young people and draft policies that 

provide independence and different employment options for migrating youth, especially girls. 

Many Nigerian girls also migrate for sex work especially to Italy. Many Nigerian girls 

especially from Edo State and sparingly Akwa Ibom State are trafficked to Italy and other 



43 

 

European countries for sex work. Blerk has not provided any information on the plight of 

Nigerian girls migrating to Italy. 

William (2007) reviews the economic literature on international migration in ten 

African countries (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Mauritius, Nigeria, 

Senegal, South Africa and Uganda), as a contribution to a larger study on migration in Africa. 

While the selection of countries is motivated by the plan of the larger study, these countries 

serve as useful illustrations of the range of migration experiences in Africa. Included are 

some of the poorer and some of the (relatively) richer countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa 

region; stable countries and others that have suffered internal and external conflicts; and 

countries that serve as destinations for migrants from other African countries but are sources 

of migrants to Europe and America, others that are both source and destination countries for 

African migrants, and some that have shifted from principally destination to source countries 

over time. This review will focus on the economic implications of migration, while 

recognizing that migration also may have important social and political impacts. The main 

body of the paper covers an overview of the available data on migration in the 10 countries, 

the benefits and risks involved in migration, the impact of migration on destination countries 

(an area where lack of data seriously constrains analysis), the implications for origin 

countries (remittances, other diaspora benefits, and the brain drain), and a discussion of 

health aspects of migration. He concludes with a discussion of priorities for future research, 

from the perspective of next steps in the broader Africa research project. William attempts to 

provide an integrated view of the migration experience in the ten countries based on 

examples from the literature, rather than a comprehensive survey of all that have been 

written. The annex covers additional material and data on each country that do not fit well 

into the main study. 



44 

 

It is important to note that our review of literature exposed a number of gaps, 

particularly the dearth of literature on the NIS and its role in migration management. It was 

also discovered that despite Nigeria being a major country of origin, most of the existing 

literature do not take their data from this country. These works base their studies mainly on 

migration issues as they concern the destination countries. Generally, there is a dearth of up-

to-date knowledge on the dynamics of international migration in Nigeria. It is known that 

there is a massive inflow of immigrants to Nigeria especially from her West African 

neighbors, the dynamics of the volume, directions of the flows and other aspects of 

international migration are still indefinite. 

How is border security managed in other countries like the USA? The choice of the 

US for a comparative analysis is due to the fact that the US seems to have perfected the act of 

border security control. It will be good to review The US border control management to help 

us come to terms with an ideal way for managing our own borders. It can be argued that the 

US has perfected border control but one should not forget the fact that American borderline is 

security friendly. On her east is a stretch of coastline on the Pacific Ocean that is thousands of 

Sea nautical miles away from Europe and Africa. On her west is coastline that ends no where. 

On her north is a friendly stretch of borderline with Canada. It is only on her south that there 

are security challenges with Mexican Drug Barons. Even at that, it a straight borderline. This 

is where Nigerian borderline can attract some sympathy. Nigeria's own borderline is as 

difficult as activities through them.  

Border Security Overview shows that protecting American borders from the illegal 

movement of weapons, drugs, contraband, and people, while promoting lawful entry and exit, 

is essential to homeland security, economic prosperity, and national sovereignty. Border 

Security Results have shown that Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has deployed 

unprecedented levels of personnel, technology, and resources and has made critical security 



45 

 

improvements to secure and manage the US borders. Through a multi-layered, risk based 

system, DHS has taken significant steps to ensure that immigration benefits are not granted to 

individuals who pose a threat to national security. DHS uses biometrics to help secure US 

borders and transportation. The US government has adopted common sense policies that 

ensure US immigration laws are enforced in a way that best enhances public safety, border 

security and the integrity of the immigration system. 

Department of Homeland Security works internationally not only to maintain US 

physical security, but also protect their economic security. DHS works closely with 

international partners to strengthen the security of the networks of global trade and travel 

upon which the nation's economy and communities rely. Protecting the American people 

from terrorist threats is the reason the Department of Homeland Security was created, and 

remains their highest priority.  They protect the nation‘s health security by providing early 

detection and early warning of bio-terrorist attacks. The threat posed by violent extremism is 

neither constrained by international borders nor limited to any single ideology. Critical 

infrastructure is the physical and cyber systems and assets so vital to the United States that 

their incapacity or destruction would have a debilitating impact on US physical or economic 

security or public health or safety. DHS' nuclear detection and forensics missions are key 

elements of the U.S. government's wide-ranging approach to preventing attacks by terrorists 

and potential state sponsors. Protecting the United States from terrorism is the founding 

mission of DHS. While America is stronger and more resilient as a result of a strengthened 

homeland security enterprise, threats from terrorism persist and continue to evolve. The US 

takes proactive policies to ensure national security. It is a comprehensive policy that covers 

all aspects of national security. 

Strengthening National Capacity—A Whole of Government Approach. To succeed, 

the US updates, balances, and integrates all of the tools of American power and work with 



46 

 

their allies and partners to do the same. Their aim is that their military must maintain its 

conventional superiority and, as long as nuclear weapons exist, US nuclear deterrent 

capability, while continuing to enhance its capacity to defeat asymmetric threats, preserve 

access to the global commons, and strengthen partners. They must invest in diplomacy and 

development capabilities and institutions in a way that complements and reinforces their 

global partners. Their intelligence capabilities must continuously evolve to identify and 

characterize conventional and asymmetric threats and provide timely insight. And they 

integrate their approach to homeland security with their broader national security approach. 

They are improving the integration of skills and capabilities within their military and 

civilian institutions, so they complement each other and operate seamlessly. They are also 

improving coordinated planning and policymaking and build their capacity in key areas 

where they fall short. This requires close cooperation with Congress and a deliberate and 

inclusive interagency process, so that they achieve integration of their efforts to implement 

and monitor operations, policies, and strategies. To initiate this effort, the White House 

merged the staffs of the National Security Council and Homeland Security Council. 

However, work remains to foster coordination across departments and agencies. Key 

steps include more effectively ensuring alignment of resources with the US national security 

strategy, adapting the education and training of national security professionals to equip them 

to meet modern challenges, reviewing authorities and mechanisms to implement and 

coordinate assistance programs, and other policies and programs that strengthen coordination. 

• Defense: The US government is strengthening the military to ensure that it can prevail in 

today‘s wars; to prevent and deter threats against the United States, its interests, and her allies 

and partners; and prepare to defend the United States in a wide range of contingencies against 

state and non-state actors. They continue to rebalance the military capabilities to excel at 



47 

 

counterterrorism, counterinsurgency, stability operations, and meeting increasingly 

sophisticated security threats, while ensuring their force is ready to address the full range of 

military operations. This includes preparing for increasingly sophisticated adversaries, 

deterring and defeating aggression in anti-access environments, and defending the United 

States and supporting civil authorities at home. The most valuable component of US national 

defense is the men and women who make up America‘s all-volunteer force. They have shown 

tremendous resilience, adaptability, and capacity for innovation, and the government  

provides the service members with the resources that they need to succeed and rededicate 

themselves to providing support and care for wounded warriors, veterans, and military 

families. The State sets the force on a path to sustainable deployment cycles and preserves 

and enhances the long-term viability of the force through successful recruitment, retention, 

and recognition of those who serve. 

• Diplomacy: Diplomacy is as fundamental to national security as defense capability. The 

diplomats are the first line of engagement, listening to US partners, learning from them, 

building respect for one another, and seeking common ground. Diplomats, development 

experts, and others in the United States Government work side by side to support a common 

agenda. New skills are needed to foster effective interaction to convene, connect, and 

mobilize not only other governments and international organizations, but also non-state actors 

such as corporations, foundations, nongovernmental organizations, universities, think tanks, 

and faith-based organizations, all of whom increasingly have a distinct role to play on both 

diplomatic and development issues. To accomplish these goals diplomatic personnel and 

missions are expanded at home and abroad to support the increasingly transnational nature of 

21st century security challenges. And the State provides the appropriate authorities and 

mechanisms to implement and coordinate assistance programs and grow the civilian 

expeditionary capacity required to assist governments on a diverse array of issues. 



48 

 

• Economic: US economic institutions are crucial components of national capacity and US 

economic instruments are the bedrock of sustainable national growth, prosperity and 

influence. The Office of Management and Budget, Departments of the Treasury, State, 

Commerce, Energy, and Agriculture, United States Trade Representative, Federal Reserve 

Board, and other institutions help manage currency, trade, foreign investment, deficit, 

inflation, productivity, and national competitiveness. Remaining a vibrant 21st century 

economic power also requires close cooperation between and among developed nations and 

emerging markets because of the interdependent nature of the global economy. America—

like other nations—is dependent upon overseas markets to sell its exports and maintain 

access to scarce commodities and resources. Thus, finding overlapping mutual economic 

interests with other nations and maintaining those economic relationships are key elements of 

national security strategy. 

• Development: Development is a strategic, economic, and moral imperative. Government 

focusing on assisting developing countries and their people to manage security threats, reap 

the benefits of global economic expansion, and set in place accountable and democratic 

institutions that serve basic human needs. Through an aggressive and affirmative 

development agenda and commensurate resources, the US strengthens the regional partners 

need to help her stop conflicts and counter global criminal networks; build a stable, inclusive 

global economy with new sources of prosperity; advance democracy and human rights; and 

ultimately position the US to better address key global challenges by growing the ranks of 

prosperous, capable, and democratic states that can be her partners in the decades ahead. To 

do this, government is expanding US civilian development capability; engaging with 

international financial institutions that leverage  US resources and advance her objectives; 

pursuing a development budget that more deliberately reflects her policies and strategy, not 



49 

 

sector earmarks; and ensuring that US policy instruments are aligned in support of 

development objectives. 

• Homeland Security: Homeland security traces its roots to traditional and historic functions 

of government and society, such as civil defense, emergency response, law enforcement, 

customs, border patrol, and immigration. In the aftermath of 9/11 and the foundation of the 

Department of Homeland Security, these functions have taken on new organization and 

urgency. Homeland security, therefore, strives to adapt these traditional functions to confront 

new threats and evolving hazards. It is not simply about government action alone, but rather 

about the collective strength of the entire country. US approach relies on their shared efforts 

to identify and interdict threats; deny hostile actors the ability to operate within US borders; 

maintain effective control of her physical borders; safeguard lawful trade and travel into and 

out of the United States; disrupt and dismantle transnational terrorist, and criminal 

organizations; and ensure national resilience in the face of the threat and hazards. Taken 

together, these efforts must support a homeland that is safe and secure from terrorism and 

other hazards and in which American interests, aspirations, and way of life can thrive. 

(www.dhs.gov/visited26/07/13) 

• Intelligence: US safety and prosperity depend on the quality of the intelligence they collect 

and the analysis they produce, their ability to evaluate and share this information in a timely 

manner, and their ability to counter intelligence threats. This is as true for the strategic 

intelligence that informs executive decisions as it is for intelligence support to homeland 

security, state, local, and tribal governments, her troops, and critical national missions. 

Government is working to better integrate the Intelligence Community, while also enhancing 

the capabilities of her Intelligence Community members. The State is strengthening US 

partnerships with foreign intelligence services and sustaining strong ties with her close allies. 

And government continues to invest in the men and women of the Intelligence Community. 

http://www.dhs.gov/visited26/07/13


50 

 

• Strategic Communications: Across all of her efforts, effective strategic communications 

are essential to sustaining global legitimacy and supporting US policy aims. Aligning their 

actions with their words is a shared responsibility that must be fostered by a culture of 

communication throughout government. The State must be more effective in her deliberate 

communication and engagement and do a better job understanding the attitudes, opinions, 

grievances, and concerns of peoples—not just elites—around the world. Doing so allows her 

to convey credible, consistent messages and to develop effective plans, while better 

understanding how her actions will be perceived. They must also use a broad range of 

methods for communicating with foreign publics, including news media. 

• The American People and the Private Sector: The ideas, values, energy, creativity, and 

resilience of American citizens are America‘s greatest resource. We will support the 

development of prepared, vigilant, and engaged communities and underscore that their 

citizens are the heart of a resilient country. And they must tap the ingenuity outside 

government through strategic partnerships with the private sector, nongovernmental 

organizations, foundations, and community-based organizations. Such partnerships are 

critical to U.S. success at home and abroad, and the US supports them through enhanced 

opportunities for engagement, coordination, transparency, and information sharing 

(Department of Homeland Security July 15, 2013) 

2.2 Theoretical Framework 

There are two theoretical explanations that this study has relied on. These are the 

institutional theory and the migration theory. The institutional theory and the migration 

theory are very comprehensive and relevant to this study. 

 



51 

 

Institutional Theory 

The first theory that this work utilizes is the institutional theory. Institutional theory 

considers the causal role of institutions (values, norms, rules, procedures, structures) in 

determining particular outcomes. Though institutionalism can focus on the micro foundations 

of institutions, it tends to consider them over time. It examines how institutions shape actors' 

preferences, highlig