1 • • /_.:.... :. .~. .~ _ _ .'-.. '.. • _ JJ\Jj~ji}J.;~lJiJJ\Jjl JDJJ jiJ\J';1l DJ ~J)lJ~';11J~J\Jjll~~1J)~ji::J1JJJ UJ~l) UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA GHANA, WEST AFRICA :.~>,.. . ~, . ~ _ . ,,_,,~,,\,.' ,r -- __ '_ .', -- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP (IJEL) 1..1EL ° \., j Volume 4, Number 4 - June, 2012 FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF EDUCA TION, WINNEBA GHANA - WEST AFRICA I TERNATIO AL JOUR AL OF EDUCATIO AL LEADERSHIP (IJEL) EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief: Rev. Fr. Anthony Afful-Broni, PhD Dean, Faculty of Educational Studies University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Editors: Seidu Alhassan, PhD National Centre for Research into Basic Education University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Prof. Ernest Awanta, PhD Department of Mathematics Education University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Sally Essurnan, PhD Head, Centre for Teacher Development and Action Research Uni versity of Education, Winneba, Ghana Business 1anager: Henry K. Kpodo, (Mr.) Faculty of Educational Studies University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Secretary: Kathryn Sackey (Ms) Faculty of Educational Studies University of Education, Winneba, Ghana CONSULTING EDITORS: Prof. Akwasi Asabere-Ameyaw, PhD Vice Chancellor, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Prof. Marynita Anderson, PhD Nassau Community College, State University of New York, Garden City, New York Prof. Donna Genova, PhD Bronx Community College, SUNY, State University of New York, Bronx, New York Prof. Sudesh Mukhopadhyay, PhD Head, Department of Inclusive Education National University of Educational Planning & Administration ew Delhi, India Prof. Monday T. Joshua, PhD Faculty of Education, University of Calabar, Calabar - Nigeria GUIDELI ES FOR SUBMISSIO OF ARTICLE 1. The International Journal of Educational Leadership (IJEL) accepts articles in the form of research, position papers or critique on theory or practice in all aspects of Educational Leadership and other related disciplines. Contributors/authors are advised to be as succinct as possible. 2. Abstracts should not exceed ISO words. 3. Articles should not exceed IS typed written, double-spaced pages excluding references and must be original, coherent and logical. 4. References and ci tations should follow the American Psychological Association (APA) style/format. S. All articles should contain the name and address (including e-mail) of the author(s) which should include institutional affiliation. Name and address of author(s) should be on a separate page. Article(s) should not have been submitted for publication or published elsewhere. 6. Initial submission of article(s) should include three (3) hard copies for review. oruributors should submit reviewed articlets) on a compact disc (CD)., . 8. A review fee of GHc;t30.00 for Ghanaian authors a~d: US$30.00 for foreign authors should accompany the manuscript. A publication fee of GHc;t80.00 for GHanaian authors. and US$100.00 for foreign authors will be charged thosewhosearticles are accepted. The decision of the Editorial Board to publish or not wiH be communicated to authors without delay . 7. 9. . All articles should be submitted to: . The Editor-in-Chief . ' Winneba - Ghana, West Africa e-rnai I: aabroniSO@gmail.com TABLE OF CONTENT Editoi-ial List Guidelines for Submission of Articles Table of Content Content Job Type, Level of Education, Self Esteem and Emotional Intelligence as Predictors of Attitudes to Work among selected Nigerian Artisans in Lagos State Dr. Taiwo, Kavode 0., Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria Akin/abi, Oluwagbenga Michael, Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria ExploI"ing Issues and Challenges in the Use of Continuous Assessment by Basic School Teachers in Ablekuma North Sub-Metro ESSIIlIWIl, S. 0., PhD & Portupliy, A., University of Education, Winneba Undergraduate Students and the 24 Hour Library Service: A Case Study of the University of llorin, Nigeria Dr. Henry 0. Owolabi, Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of I1orin, Nigeria. & Dr. Josepli 0. Otnoniyi, Central Library, University of Ilorin, Ilorin-Nigeria. Child's Right Act (2003): Challenges for Human Right Enforcement and Constitutional Amendment in igeria Dr. R. W. Okunloye, Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, Faculty of Education, University of I1orin, llorin, Nigeria. Email: rotiloye@yahoo.com Relationship among Teachers' Science Process Skills, Scientific Attitudes and Students' Performance in Chemistry Dr. B. 0. Ogunleye, Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Clothing as a Means of Non-Verbal Communication: Trends and Implications for Takor adi Polytechnic, Ghana M aame A/II(l Nkruniah, Li beral Studies Department Scliolastica Azua/z, Fashion Department, Takoradi Polytechnic, Takoradi, Ghana & Dr. Samuel Obeug Apori, Department of Animal Science, University of Cape Coast, Ghana Issues Arising from Environmental Education in Secondary Schools: The Case of Bogoso, Ghana Maame All/a Nkruuiah, Takoradi Polytechnic, Takoradi, Ghana Overview of Art Education Programme in the University of Education, Winneba - Ghana F. K. Duku, University of Education, Winneba & P. Osei-Poku. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi Improving Secondary School Students' Summary Writing Skills lyabode. M. Ojedokun, PhD, National Examinations Council, Ibadan Zonal Office, Ibadan iv 11 III IV Page 1 11 23 34 41 49 62 70 79 Inducting Newly-Appointed Junior High School Headteachers (Ghana): A Case 87 Study of Sunyani Municipality Dr. Hinneh Kusi, Department of Psychology and Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. The Inf1uence of Some Demographic Variables, Parental and Peer Factors on 96 Bullying Behaviour among Senior Secondary School Students in Ibadan, Oyo State H(lJ III 11ed, T Avo, PhD, Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan. Nigeria Exploring the Reporting Time and Attendance Patterns of Female Junior Staff 106 in the University of Education, Winneba Hag ar Bampoh-Addo, Faculty of Languages Education, University of Education, Winneba & Deborali AIflll, Division of Human Resource, University of Education, Winneba Impact on Some Teacher Variables on Student Assessment of Difficulty 116 Levels in Geography Fol ajoguu, \I. Falaye, PhD, Institute of Education, University ofIbadan, Nigeria Promoting Student Participation in Quality Enhancement at the 'Wisconsin 125 International University College (WIUC) John Kwaiue Boateug. PhD, Wisconsin International University College, North Legon, Accra Motherhood - Ama Ata Aidoo's Changing Colour 133 Richard Banipoh-Addo (Mr.], Centre for Teacher Development and Action Research. I.E.D.E., University of Education, Winneba, E-mail.richybgh@yahoo.com ' Factors Inf1uencing Differential Gender Participation in Reproductive 139 Behaviour among Females in Ibadan, Nigeria Avangutuia. J. A., PhD, Department of Social Work, University of lbadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Age, Gender, Teaching Experience, Academic Qualification, Access to Computer 147 and Computer experience as Correlates of Computer Self Efficacy of Nigerian Secondary School Teachers Avoto!a A retnu, PhD &. Olaide Fasau, M.Ed, Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria The Function of the Components of Content in Music Education 156 Hails Kweku Anderson, Department of Basic Education, University of Education. Winneba Contributing Factors to Effective Teaching and Learning: Implications for 163 Curriculum Development and Quality Technical Teacher Production in Nigeria Alade, Ibiwumi A., PhD, Department of Vocational and Technical Education Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State - Nigeria Job Security, Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment as Correlates 173 of Job Performance among Workers in Lagos State, Nigeria E. M. Aja!a, PhD, Department of Social Work, University of lbadan, Ibadan. "IV An Analysis of Human Resource Management Practices in Polytechnics in 184 Ghana: The Impact of Practice and Size Micliael Adusei Boadu, Ph.D, Takoradi Polytechnic & Enuuanue! Opoku- Ware, Sunyani Polytechnic Challenges of the New 9-Year Basic Education: Implications for Curriculum 191 Implementation Effectiveness in Nigeria Joshua O. Ade/eke, Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria Martins Fabunnii, Department of Educational Management University of Ibadan,Ibadan Nigeria & 1. Ademola, Oje/eye, Department of Educational Foundations, Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo, Nigeria Students' Involvement in University Administration: The Role of Students' 200 Satisfaction Survey Paul KwadwoAddo, Assistant Registrar. Quality Assurance and Planning Unit & Solomon Panford, Acting College Registrar, College of Agric and Natural Resources Kwarne Nkrurnah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. Ghana. Teachers' Preparation in the Era of Information and Communication 208 Technology (ICT): The Way Forward Dr. Micael Seguti Abifarin, Department of Psychology and Education University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Implications of Gender and Equal Educational Opportunity for Sustainable 214 Development in Nigeria Adedokuu, 1. ~., Department of Educational Psychology Federal College of Education (Technical), Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria Policy Implementation and Access to Higher Education: The Corupetitiveness of 221 General and Advanced Business Certificate (G/ABC)Uolders in ACCessing Business Education Programmes in Ghanaian tertiarY Institutions (TiS) Ahmed M. Musa, Department of Management Education, . University of Education, Winneba . . .. . t : Self-Concept and Performance of SecOndary School Students in Mathematics . Oluwat ayo, lames Ayodele, PhD, institute of Education, ; 'I' University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria, 230 I. .. , ., Bridging the Rural-Urban AdrnissioriGap: The C.SSPS Perspective , Kale Frimpoug, University of Cape Coast Junior High Scliool, Carte; Coast Rosemary S. BOSIl, Inslitut;e. for Educational Rlanning-and Adminisirarion. University of Cape Coast . ,. . r. ;' . "" .r • 7.37 ' .J ",' ! ~ , .' ~~_r ". t·, ,I., ", . : ,, Stakeholders' Perception of the ComputeriS'ed'Schools Selection and Placement 247 System (CSSPS) Kale Frinipong, University of Cape Coast Junior High School, Cape Coast Maximizing Quality Performance in igerian Secondary Education: A Case for 256 Re-Examination of Principal Selection and Evaluation Mechanisms Odiinegwu, Christiana 0., Crystal Research Consult, Awka, Nigeria. Agu, Ngozi, Department of Education Foundations, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria vi Structural Facility Condition and Academic Achievement of Students in Greater 263 Accra Public Senior High Schools A. L. Dare & W. K. Agbevanu, Institute for Educational Planning and Administration, University of Cape Coast Perceptions of Problems of Practice by Heads of Senior High Schools in South 274 West Ghana Micliael Aniakvi, PhD, Institute for Educational Planning and Administration, University of Cape Coast Assessing Basic Education Policies and Practices in Nigeria and Ghana 280 Clement Oluse gun Olaniran Kolawol e PIz.D., Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria & Ernes! I. D. Ngniaii-wara, PhD., Department of Basic.Education, University of Education, Winneba,Ghana ' Gender, Level and Location differences in the Quality of Life of Secondary 289 School Students in Oyo State, Nigeria' Mathew 0. Ogunmola, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria & Dr. Henry 0. Owolabi, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, I1orin, Nigeria Enacting the Dirge: An Excursus on the Performative Categories in Urhobe 296 Funeral Ceremonies Felicia Ohwovoriole, PhD, Department of English, University of Lagos, Akoka-Lagos. Teaching using Information Communication Technology in a Nigerian University: 306 Do Lecturers have the Confidence? Dr. A. N. Maduekwe, Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria. & Dr. S. A. Oyebade, Department of Educational Administration, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria. vii ENACTING THE DIRGE: AN EXCURSUS ON THE PERFORMATIVE CATEGORIES IN URHOBO FUNERAL CEREMONIES Felicia Ohwovoriole, PhD Department of English, University of Lagos, Akoka-Lagos. Abstract The dirge is poetry performed within the COiltext of funeral and tneuiorial ceremonies. This study deals with the performers of dirges among the Urliobo of the Niger-Delta of Nigeria. The performance of the poetry is done by both men and women and each category has distinct role to play. The dirge is all art that is essentially literary and utilitarian and there are significant features of performance which make the dirge unique in the literary situation of the Urliobo. Although the deceased is the focal point of 1110st of the dirges, the artistry of mourners/performers is as evident as insighis into the people's way of life. Performers enact various styles in delivering the dirge. The purpose of this paper is to examine the various performative categories ill the process of enacting the dirge. Introduction The dirge as a poetry, performed within the context of bereavement, constitutes part of the rite of passage for the dead. It provides a valuable framework for the people to explore the nature of life and death and relate this to the ultimate pUI1)ose of human existence. The dirge also serves as an avenue for distinctive creativity, unchaining the people's poetic sensibilities in the process of the expression of grief. The Urhobo people are' found mainly in the Delta State of Nigeria. They are spread over nine Local Government Areas. ThIS paper regards the Urhobo as a culturally homogenous people in spite of the different dialects of Urhobo spoken in different clans of Urhobo land. In Urhobo society participation in a funeral performance may be a voluntary activity or an obligation imposed by one's membership in a family or social group. Such a group may be of one descent, or it may be any group based on the broader societal classification of age, sex, interest or occupation. Modes of Delivery Performers participate in various styles in deli vering the dirge. These' include singing, chanting or recitation. Communication with the dead very often takes the form of a conversational monologue. Many dirges about a single subject may be in a formulaic fashion in which new attributes are incorporated as each new dirge is introduced. A reciter speaks the way he would speak to the living. The speech may combine complaints. scolding, sometimes even anger, appeals and forgiveness. Eulogy is recited with a high pitch of voice. It incorporates spontaneous creations of the indi vidual mourner, her reflecti ons and statements about the deceased. The eulogy employs devices that include conventional features of allusions to ancestry and accomplishments, kinship terms, epithets and terms of endearment. Chanting and recitation stand half way between normal speech and song. hence Nketia (J 955:23) refers to it as "half spoken and half song". The chanter or reciter is anxious to give prominence to the beauty of his or her vocal style and to impress the words on hearers as audibly as possible. Music is often either severely subdued or totally absent. Chanting or recitation of the dirge hardly promotes audience participation. Attention is focussed on the reciter. On the other hand, the song is characterized by a high degree of musicality produced by both vocal and instrumental input. A song performance involves audience participation. Supplications to the ancestors may be in the form of recited or sung prayers. Direct prayers by the reciter call on the ancestors to listen tosupplications and come 296 to the aid of those left behind. The ancestor's name IS usually evoked as a means of communicating with the spirit world. Categories of Performers There are three major categories of performers who play different roles in a funeral ceremony. We have (a) the chronicler (eldest daughter of a deceased/eulogist) reciter, (b) soloists or cantor, (c) chorus, audience burial officials and specialists. The Soloist The expert eulogist tries to sustain the interest of her audience. In order to dri ve home her points she repeats her statements, and varies her diction. An excellent memory is an essential qualification of such a soloist (reciter) as she has to memorize the praises of the late father and all his ancestors and these eulogies are recited. In the absence of a daughter, any female relation can recite the praises. In the case of a soloist rendering a lament; she may enlist the cooperation of the audience in refrains and in bodily movement, from stamping of the feet to clapping and dancing. Extemporising requires the eulogist or the soloist to choose the right word or phrase, to think of suitable connections and to select the appropriate devices. With sympathetic audience the singer's thoughts, feelings and expressions are coloured by the mood of the moment as exemplified by: Ke vw'i1e Give me songs 1.Kevw'ile 1. Give me songs to sing 2 Kevwile 2. Give me songs to sing 3.0nokurhefe kevw'ile 3. Onokurhefe give me songs to sing The deceased named Onokurhefe is being implored by the soloist to give her songs to sing so that she may sing to the glory of the departed. The principal role of the soloist is choosing the song, and determining when it should start and end. In the process of singing, she takes the successive leading lines of the song. The experiences she makes allusions to, the moti fs she develops and her choice of words all show her for the most part, as an imitation of the collective consciousness of the Urhobo people. During funeral celebrations a bereaved may lament the tragedy that has befallen her lot. It is in this light that the soloist in the followi ng dirge mourns the death of her father: The eldest daughter of the deceased sometimes acts as the soloist, she renders some dirges which are cast in a dialogue form between her and the women mourners: Okpole ! 1. Soloist: Amono ye sui le vwo tito Okpole ne Oghine ghwu? Chorus: Oya Ibaba Oya Ibaba Oyaaa S: Kono yin se omre osghe oyan jovwo? C: Oya lbaba Oya Ibaba oyaaa S:Mane ihwo re itoboyin rhivwin C: Oya Ibaba Oya Ibaba Oyaaa S:Je oseme yanre re mre ivwie me .C: Oya Ibaba Oya ibaba oyaaa S: Efen koyen me ria eban ture C:Oya Ibaba Oya Ibaba Oyaaa 2. -, .J. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The Big yam l. Soloist: Who will sing in honour of Okpoli? lis he really dead? 2. Chorus" Oya Ibaba Oya Ibaba Oyaaa 3. S: Who will make him come back and see the confusion left behind? 4. C:Oya Ibaba Oya Ibaba Oyaa 5. S: I wish people returned when they get there 6. C: Oya Ibaba Oya Ibaba Oyaaaa 7. S: For my father would have returned and see my calamity 8. C: Oya Ibaba Oya Ibaba Oyaaa 9. S: I now eat fishing instead of the large tilapia 10. C: Oya Ibaba Oya Ibaba Oyaaa A soloist or a single performer sings in a chant form. She may intone words to a repetitious musical measure of few notes. She sings in memory of the departed members of 297 her own family even though she has come to condole with the host family. Although the soloist impersonates the collective consciousness of her community, she sometimes brings -her personality to bearon.the event. This is done through self-introduction. She starts stating 'her social position in the society or her relationship with the deceased. In this text the soloist starts off by stating: Ovigue 1. Wo vwo vw' omote 2. Od' agada we onure 3. Eji mi vweri 4. Mevwen yen Ovigue omon we S. Aye wovwo k ' Isiorho 6. Ekpu r' Idolo Ovigue 1. To have a daughter 2. You did not need one from your loins 3. Let me mourn 4. I, Ovigue your daughter S. The wife you gave to Isiorho 6. The dollor bag One notices that the soloist alludes to the fact she is an adopted daughter of the deceased whom he gave out in marriage to an important man in the community. Her allusion to the dollar also indicates the man's financial position, for it is only the wealthy in Urhobo society that are called dollar bags (ekpu r' idolo). The soloist; too, can render the form of a song more flexible than expected. This is especially true of texts that are considered as 'free' and not 'fixed'. The lead singer in so doing injects some new phrases into the existing stock expressions so as to enhance the beauty of her performance. Craig (1973:56) has this to say in this regard: The performer can add verse about whatever he likes, Whatever is topical...The form is just light in that it is entertaining enough to carry an audience along yet pointed and entrenchant enough to heighten morale consciousness In effect it is realized that the dirges are not only communal in character and outlook but individual or personal as well. Again the soloist often establishes the context of the performance during the oral realization and direct rendition of the pieces being performed. The soloist thus situates the occasion within a specific context be it religious, praise or satire. Members of the audience are urged to stop sobbing and concentrate on the necessary funeral rites. The fact that the burial is going on shows that the children of the deceased have the means to .give their father a befitting funeral at the proper time. This conceptualization of performance by the soloist goes a long way to make his audience aware of the demand of the burial occasion as well as the duty they have in making it a success. He or she also tutors the audience ,0;1 the mode of performance at the same time as she is singing. She is able to instruct her audience on what to do and to ensure that the occasion is a success. If she notices that the appropriate response is not coming from the audience she may advise: Ateye abo Let us clap our hands Since the. singing is often accompanied by performance, the soloist may tell drowsy performers: Egbe phiyo Let us dance to it Another role played by the soloist is that more often than not she is a source of solace to the host family. She often consoles the bereaved family in such renditions as: 298 Obukohwo 1.0buk' ohwo 2. Obuk' ohwo r' ata na 3. Ona dje rhe ,Qy~n dje rhe 4. Ona cha vw' uko 5.0buko ohwo rata n Family Back up 1. Family backing 2. The family backing that is cherished 3. One comes, another hastens to me 4. And yet another brings me help S. That is the family solidarity we cherish The bereaved is not alone in her moment of grief. She has the support of family members who will assist in bearing the cost of funeral expenses. This show of solidarity is the mark of communalism. Ogba ru' igoni Death has chained the giant 1.Ehehe ogba ru' igoni 1. Dearth has imprisoned the strong 2. Kono ? 2. Who else can escape? 3.Ehehe QS~ ravware ghwu gbere QtQ3. Death has imprisonsed our father 4.0hwahwa rode muvwe okioghwe 4. A big harmattan has griped me in the rainy season S.Ogba j111' igoni S. The metal chain has constrained the great 6. Kono 0 0 ? 6. How much less teh weak? 7. Baba, opha udje okpo re 7. Father, the pride of udje dance has gone home 8.Eeeeeeeeeeee 8. Eeeeeeeeeee Death is for everybody, both the strong and weak. When death occurs, people in the society usually console the bereaved by supporting them in any capacity. The "igoni'{prison) in line one is an allusion to colonial prisons. The outward and visible sign of British colonial rule In Urhobo land were the native COUltS and prisons that were established at various centres. A feature of the system was the office of the court clerk- the man who had the responsibility for summoning the court members, administering summonses to. witnesses, keeping the records and ensuring that offenders meant for prisons were kept there. In many ways the courL clerk was regarded as a strong man (ogba). In spite of his powers he could not overcome death. The soloist may also comment on the issues handled in the songs as she performs. She may also gi ve opinions, lend advice and pass judgement: Ogbo 00 1.9rivwi gbo-o 2. Ori vwi gbo- Always fresh 1. The deseased does not get rotten 2. The deceased does not get rotten The "cgbo 0" (always fresh) conceptually connotes that any time a bereaved is financially strong enough to perform his parent's obsequies; both the dead and the living would gladly welcome him. On a note of regret in another dirge the soloist reveals man's inability to subdue death just as overgrown weeds in the farm of a lazy woman publicly reveals her indolence. We are also shown the consequences of death and how it leads to abandonrnen l: Ovwier e r+ayc na 1. Ovwiere raye na 2. Ti vo WQeghwa vwiyo 3. Oro reheto re yre; aghwa wen re 4. Gbe tob' eghwa wen S. Orehoto re h'udju rere . The indolent wife 1. You indolent wife 2. Where is your farm? 3. The taker-of-the land has taken your farm 4. Go and see your farm 5. Weeds have swallowed up everywhere 299 In another chant the soloist explains that nobody can escape death however hard the person struggles. Death is likened to a crab, which is not easy to wrap with leaves. ~~wro T~crnb I Ehe! Ehe! ehe!.' 1. Alasl Alas! Alas! 2. Ono pha r'uko r ' egwhro? 2. Who can wrap a crab with leaves? 3.0ber'iko 3. The one that tears parcels Some dirges have mainly a soloist as a performer. Audience participation is minimal in funeral recitative verses as shown in this text: Uyere 1. Mi yeri ihwo ejeetine 2. Oh wo r' oghwovue sakwo ornaan 3. Omon r' ejuwevwin 4. Ose eghwe ugbo igedee 5. Mi etine fike Odomaese 6. Onwo re omudiaga uvie 7. Ore evwiere v' ekpeti roro 8. Abo wen ji gbe de voo 9 Omavwerown okieje la. Evwie we avwo ga we Saluting 1. I salute everybody here 2. The carrier of a message does not get hurt 3. A child sent on an en-and 4. Cannot die in the process Odomaese 5. I am here on behalf of . 6. Great occupier of a throne 7. Born with a golden stool 8. Your hands have never been soiled 9. You are always joyous la. You are born to be served Eulogy in this regard is more of individual performance reflecting the reciter's intense feeling of loss. The soloist's utterances are usually poetic because of the intense emotion evoked. Another solo performer in a funeral context is the chanter who engages in ancestral propitiation, prayers, incantations or invocations as in: Qgbaeki 1.0r' ovwe owe r' Ughene 2.Ny' arodovwe me 3.Wo j' ehun me je vwe fiaa 4.Wo j' ota ru nu me hwe vwee 5.0kpQle:: 6.0gbaeki odafe 7.0bo r' oma fu we 8.J' oma ji fu vwe 9.Mi n' eravwo r' otovwe 10.Wo j' ekwe ame robevwen kwe uwevwin mee The Great entrepreneur 1. Owner of fishing pond in Ughelli 2. Have mercy on me 3. Let not my waist disappoint me 4. Do not let the words of my mouth be my ruin 5. Okpole it is to you that i pray 6. Ogbaeki the wealthy one 7. As you get rest in peace 8. Let me have a peaceful time 9. I pray let me live till old age la. Make sure they do not throw the water of poverty into my house In these utterances the soloist or reciter presents his supplication to his ancestor. He prays that he may not suffer any reverses in his life. Be uses the analogy of the waist disappointing him that is his manhood should not fail him in reproduction. He also prays that his home may be so happy that he needs not be frightened to go back into it at any time. The tongue being an organ capable of strengthening and destroying human relations, the reciter asks his ancestor for grace to be able to control his tongue in order that it may not be his ruin. Finally a soloist enriches the performance by shortening a sentence, lengthening a phrase or introducing ululation and sometimes re-introducing the opening declamation with a slight variation bearing the stamp of her personality and her unique knowledge of the major' happenings in the community to which she belongs. She is usually armed with all relevant -. 300 information about the deceased and in delivering a dirge she may spice it with humour, proverbs and even at times nonsense words, which excite, educate and grieve the spectators. Chorus Among the ancient Greeks the chorus was a group, weanng masks that sang or chanted verses while performing dance like manoeuvres at religious festivals. A similar chorus played a part in Greek tragedies, where (in the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles) they served mainly as commentators who represented traditional moral, religious, and social attitudes. Beginning with Euripedes, however, the chorus assumed primarily a lyrical function. A chorus, as developed by Pindar, also chanted the Greek Ode. Roman playwrights, such as Seneca, took over the chorus from the Greeks and in the sixteenth century some English dramatists like Nc:irton and Sackville in Gorbuduc imitated the Senecan chorus. John Milton included a chorus in "Samson Agonistes", Shelley used a chorus in "Prornetheus Un bound". During the Elizabethan Age the term "chorus" was applied to a single character that spoke the prologue and epilogue to a play, and sometimes introduced each act as well. This character served as the author's vehicle for commenting on the play and for communicating to the audience exposition about its subject, offstage events, and setting. Modern scholars use the term choral character to identify a character within the play itself that stands largely apart from the action and by its comments provide the audience with a special perspective. Examples in Shakespeare are the Fool in King Lear, Enobarbus in Antony and Cleopatra. Denys Thompson (1978:23) observes that the "choral character" is sometimes applied also to persons in a novel who represent a communal point of view or the perspective of a cultural group, and provide norms by which to judge other characters and what they do, for example Thomas Hardy's peasants. In the performance of Urhobo dirge, the chorus also plays a major role. It contributes a lot to the antiphonal form of the dirges. Finnegan (1977: 198) elaborates on this: It is clear that the antiphonal form provides scope for far more flexibility, rich elaboration, and varied interpretation than is immediately apparent from the bald statement that is the characteristic structure of African songs. It is also a most suitable form for the purposes to which it is put. It makes possible both the exploitation of an expert and creative leader, and popular participation by all those who wish or are expected to join in It shows from the above that the principal role of the chorus is that of accompanying the soloist or performer. It supports in singing and playing musical instruments. The chorus supports the performer by singing or completing stock expressions. For example in this satirical dirge the chorus completes the stock expressions: Monoria Millionaire 1. S:Edje bre edje oyibo se 1. S: The whitemen calls a man of means 2. C:Monoria 2. C: A millionaire 3. S:Iyongu re ovwigho oyibo se 3. S: The whiteman calls the wealthy young 4. C:Monoria 4. C: A millionaire S. S: Ohwo re ovwi ishelle oyibo se. S. The while mand calls teh tycoon 6. C:Monoria 6. C: A millionaire 7. S: Edje bre edje oyibe se 7. The while man calls the magnate 8. C:Monoria 8. C: A millionare Here, the chorus is aware of Urhobo stock expressions being used about the rich and so utters them. The chorus, also completes the ideas of the leading lines as seen in: WQ cha hwa yen 1. W9 cha hwa yen ke 2. l;,de ri none 3. W9 cha hwa yen ke 4. Emu ri Ibaba W9 rere S.W9 cha hwa yen ke 6. Edi rIbaba re W9 sua 7. W9 cha hwa yen 8. Eghwro r' Ibaba rowo reyore 9. Wo cha hwa yen ke Paying back 1. You will pay him back 2. This very day 3. You will pay him back 4. Father's food that you consumed 5. You win pay him back 6. Father's palm fruits you harvested 7. You will pay him back 8. Father's farm tools you took 9. You will pay him back Some members of the chorus often take leave of their monotonous utterance to add new ideas to the ones being sung by the soloist. In the above poem, the chorus may mention some of the articles mourners need to payor express ways in which the deceased can be paid debt owed to him.The role of the chorus is not reduced to only accompanying and supporting the soloist. Often, chorus endorses the opinions of the soloist on the subjects raised in the songs by interrupting with agreeable comments. The chorus may act as a corrective agent. During a performance the chorus can act as a critic. She can clarify issues raised by the soloist, she may be challenged for giving false information on the deceased and she may be praised when necessary either verbally or by simply pasting money on her. The chorus may throw more light on the occasion by bringing in the necessary background information that may help enhance the understanding of the issues raised. Mi su' Ibaba l.Eee Ibaba ni mi suoyen 2.Ee mi. sun ro 3.Mi sun ro n'Iyede rhi te OZ9n;> 4. Eee mi sun ro sheri Accompanying Father 1. Father ordered that i should escort him 2. Oh i did accompany him 3. I accompanied him from Iyede to Ozoro 4. I accompanied him far The soloist concentrates on the idea that she has accompanied her father, but without the chorus it is difficult to determine how far she has accompanied her father. Her movement from Iyede to Ozoro indicates that she has interred her father with full funeral lites. Before the burial the father was lying in state in Iyede (this world) and after the burial in the grave (Ozoro) she has completed her task of ushering the deceased to the world beyond. One of the prominent roles of the chorus, too, is that it prolongs and intensifies the emotions aroused by the situations out of which the songs emanate especially ululations from the chorus. These help to intensify emotions during performance. These shouts may be uttered in different pitches and may reflect different moods. During the enactment of laments by soloist and chorus for instance, the chorus may come in once in a while with a howl-that is a long loud cry expressing pain and anger aroused by the particular death. Ululations often involve singing in a way to suggest grief. In many Urhobo dirges the choral responses are phonaesthetic words such as: Wuo 000 Inene wuoo Oya ibaba oyaa 302 Furthermore, in some dirges the chorus as well as the soloist make use of particles such as ee aa and 00 at the beginning or at the end of lines. This diffused occurrence of tonal and phonological patterns, together with sobs and tears conjoin to bodily movements are all aimed at an emotional grip on the performers and audiencealike. Ultimately, the chorus is a source of solace to the soloist and the bereaved family alike during the enactment of dirges. When a soloist laments over her fate and that of the bereaved family as a whole, it is often the chorus or some of its members that lessen the weight of the problem through the use of consoling words. The choral response in the text below shows grief and expresses consolation at the same time. The opening choral sound pattern uya e e e evokes grief by virtue of the tone pattern (low-pitched) .and so we are made to picture a sorrow-laden people. The second part of the utterancevtake it with fortitude" however is aimed at reducing the effect of the loss, for it is a piece of advice to be followed to alleviate the pains of the loss. There is a suggestion of an acceptance of the inevitable since, as Knappert (1970:45) puts it "we have to submit even when we cannot understand his justice". Re YQv'udu 1.S: Ughwu re ose me muvwe dje 2.C: Uya e e e re yo ve udu 3.S: Ose me re oku' ede kuvwe 4.C: Uya e e e re yo ve udu 5.S: Ose me re oghreghre vwe 6. C: Uya e e e re yo ve udu Take it with fortitude 1. S: My father's death has grieved me 2. C: Uya e e e take it in good faith 3. .S: My father that showers me with adulation . 4. C: Uya e e e take it with great courage 5. S: My father that sings my acclamation 6. C: Uya e e e take it in good faith The Audience A vital feature of oral forms of literature is the audience. The audience is very often involved in the actualisation and recreation of anygi ven piece of oral literature. The particular way in which this is done lies in the fact that the artist is usually receptive to the audience-to its reactions, expectations and cultural assumptions. Oral literature as a performed mode of creation demands an audience. Ruth Finnegan (1977: 198) has rightly described the significant interaction between the audience, narrator and the recited piece: A further essential factor is the audience, which, as is not the case with written forms, is often directly involved in the actualisation and creation of a piece of oral literature. According to convention, genre, and personality, the artist may be more or less receptive to his listener's reactions. but with few exceptions, an audience of some kind is normally an essential pmt of the whole literary situation. There is no escape for the oral artist from a face-to-face confrontation with his audience; and this is something, which he can exploit as well as be influenced by. Sometimes, he chooses to involve his listeners directly, as in storytelling situations where it is common for the narrator to open with a formula which explicitly arouses his audience's attention: he also often expects them to participate actively in the narration and, in particular join in the choruses of songs which he introduces into the narrati ye. The audience can be exploited in similar ways in the performance of poetry particularly in sung lyrics where it is common practice for the poet to act as leader, singing and improvising the verse line, while the audience performs as th, chorus keeping up the burden of the song, sometimes to the accompaniment of .... dancing to instrumental music. In such cases, connection between artist and audience can almost turn into an identity, the choru-s dire-ctly participating in at least certain parts of the performance. 303 At the moment of performance, the audience act as mourners and spectators and are directly involved in the realisation of the dirge as poetry. There are two main types of audiences: the direct.and indirect. The direct audience in a funeral setting is a participatory one and in most cases form part of the chorus. On the other hand we have an indirect audience in the other inhabitants of the village who see and hear the singing. For the community generally the funeral event is marked out with due solemnity and attention largely by virtue of the performance of dirges. Death in one family would not be the concern of only the bereaved family that has to arrange for the funeral; it would be the concern of the rest of the community as well, who will attend in sympathy and render ail)' assistance to the family. Three gunshots are fired in a village to publicly announce the death of a person. The degree of participation of the audience depends on the type of dirge rendered. In the case of chants, some members of the audience may, in a state of ecstasy, get up and gesticulate to the tune of the chants particularly when praise names are given to sympathisers arriving for the funeral. The audience may resort to the clapping of hands when the chanter hits on a very appropriate maxim or exhibits unusual dexterity. In the case of songs anybody who knows the tune may join in singing the refrain. There may be pronounced humming for melodious and rhythmic effect. When recitative verses are being delivered, there may be subdued acclamation by the audience at the appropriateness of the address to the deceased, subdued in that as the address is generally before the corpse, the emotion of grief is very intense. There may also be occasional sobbing by the mourners to match the pathetic situation. Performer's Costume Urhobo funeral attire is gender-differentiated. It also depends on the burial stage. Five main occasions determine the kind of clothes to wear. These occasions are labour/farm, leisure, festival/ceremony, mourning and war. Clothes worn during mouming are less attractive and comparatively dull. In some instances (when an old person dies), clothes worn during funerals are similar to those worn during festivals and ceremonies. An Urhobo woman dresses up in wrapper and a blouse to cover everywhere from the neck/shoulders to the ankles. Her wrapper is double, with the inner wrapper longer than the outer one. It is the inner one that covers the waist to the ankles. She wears her blouse on top of the inner cloth but ties the second wrapper over it. It is also customary for the Urhobo woman to tie beads called ikpono round her waist before wearing her wrapper and in the process increases the size of her waist artificially. Women also wear necklaces, earrings and colourful headgear. Men also dress gorgeously mainly to show and project their wealth. The traditional form consists of a long shirt and a large wrapper. The wrapper is tied to the waist. with a belt crafted from cloth; and reaches the ankle while shirt is worn over the wrapper. Older men also use walking sticks, while those who killed human enemies such as lions and tigers wear eagle feathers on their hats. However, other men during a funeral sometimes wear ordinary feathers on their hats or caps. Titled men wear beads. Current research shows that the titled men are distinguished during a funeral ceremony by the higher degree of gorgeousness in dress and the use of coral beads. The Urhobo are known for the brightness of the colour of their clothes. Their overall colour scheme is dominated by red and yellow. The local cloth, which used to be calico, has been replaced by silk or cotton, the superior form of which is now imported from the United Kingdom and India. In the sphere of rituals, the functionaries wear red and white clothes. Red colour signifies blood, danger and death while white signifies purity. 304 Conclusion In this paper we have examined categories of dirge performers. It should be noted that many of the dirge performances are often highly dramatic and picturesque. On many occasions especially during the burial ceremonies of wealthy and prominent individuals in Urhobo society, highly colourful, entertaining and spectacular shows are put on by performers for people to see. In fact these occasions provide very dramatic and theatrical expressions of Urhobo history, belief and social experiences. In consequence, these dirge expressions entail the performance of various categories of people. References Akporobaro, F.B.O. (2006) Introduction to African Oral Literature, Lagos: Princeton Publishing Company. Craig, D. (1973) The Real Foundations: Literature and Social Change London: Chatto and Windus. Finnegan, R. (1977) Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance and Social Context London: Cambridge Uni versi ty Press. Knappert, J. (1970) Myths and Legends of the Swahili, London: Heinemann. ketia, J.H. (1955) Funeral Dirges of the Akan People. Achimota: University of the Gold Coast. Thompson, D. (1978) The Uses of Poetry Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 305