ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 1 Tradition, innovation and change in contemporary Nigerian theatre Duro  Oni,  Professor  of  Theatre  Arts  and  Dean,  Faculty  of  Arts,  University  of  Lagos,  Nigeria   Abstract     Contemporary  Nigerian  Drama  and  Theatre  has  undergone  various  changes  in  recent  times  from   its  traditional  mode  of  the  Alarinjo  Theatre  (Adedeji,  1969)  to  Western  style  performances  which   started  in  the  late  19th  Century  with  the  concerts,  cantatas  and  native  air  operas  (Echeruo,  1977).   From  these  early  beginnings,  the  theatre  developed  with  the  emergence  of  Hubert  Ogunde  on  the   theatre  scene  in  1945  (Clark,  1979).     From  that  period  until  the  early  1990s  the  theatre  survived  with  performances  mainly  among  the   major  ethnic  groups,  particularly  the  Yoruba  Travelling  Theatres  (Jeyifo,  1984).  Other   organizations  and  establishments  including  universities  in  Nigeria,  cultural  centres  of  Art  Councils   and  private  production  organizations  followed  in  the  involvement  in  theatrical  productions  (Oni,   1985,  2002).     The  paper  notes  that  theatrical  performances  and  the  theatre  started  to  merge  with  the   production  of  celluloid  films  when  Wole  Soyinka  produced  Kongi’s  Harvest  in  1970.  This  was   followed  with  the  works  of  such  theatre  producers  as  Ade  Afolayan  and  Moses  Olaiya  and  others.   It  was  however  the  foray  of  Hubert  Ogunde,  regarded  as  the  father  of  modern  Nigerian  Theatre,   into  film  that  gave  that  medium  a  truly  new  dimension.   This  paper  investigates  the  transition  from  the  traditional/modern  live  theatre  to  film/video   formats  in  the  Nigerian  theatre  scene  (Haynes,  1997)  culminating  in  the  UNESCO  ranking  of  the   Nigerian  film  industry  as  the  second  largest  in  the  world.  The  paper  examines  the  various  trends   that  have  occasioned  these  changes  and  the  innovations  that  it  has  brought  to  the  Nigerian   theatrical  scene.   –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––   Introduction   This  paper  investigates  the  transition  from  the  traditional/modern  live  theatre  to  film/video   formats  in  the  Nigerian  theatre  scene.  The  paper  also  looks  at  the  various  trends  that  have   occasioned  these  changes  and  the  innovations  that  they  have  brought  to  the  Nigerian  theatrical   scene  from  the  root  of  the  Alarinjo  Theatre  to  the  current  Nollywood  Industry.  The  transition   from  the  Alarinjo  theatre  to  the  theatre  in  the  colonial  era  to  the  Popular  traditional  theatre   (championed  by  Ogunde)  and  finally  to  the  English/University  theatre  and  their  contribution  to   the  film  industry  is  the  focus  of  the  paper.  At  the  heart  of  any  society  is  the  very  human  desire  to   share  stories  as  a  way  of  making  sense  of  experience.  Constructing  narratives  is  a  universal,   uniquely  human,  behaviour.  All  over  the  world  and  throughout  time  people  have  told  each  other   stories,  so  much  so  that  Walter  Fisher  (1984,  1987)  suggests  ‘we  should  conceptualize  ourselves   as  Homo  narrens’  (Barbatsis,  2005:  331).     ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 2 Origins  of  Nigerian  Theatre   It  is  generally  believed  that  every  society  must  have  had  their  own  kind  and  form  of  theatre  apart   from  the  origin  ascribed  to  the  Greek  theatre  and  Thespis.  According  to  Yemi  Ogunbiyi  (1981,   p.3);  “…Nigerian  theatre  and  drama  originated  with  the  Nigerian  himself,  embodying  his  first   preoccupations,  his  first  struggles,  successes,  setbacks  and  all…”.  This  is  connected  to  the  fact   that  man  in  his  quest  to  survive  mimicked  animals  in  his  hunting  expedition  and  created  dance   movements,  a  form  of  theatre.  The  ritual  enactments  of  these  dances  for  prey  became  the   foundation  for  African  and  consequently  Nigerian  theatre  and  drama.  Just  like  many  of  the   theatrical  performances  of  the  early  Greek  period  were  not  written  down  until  Aeschylus,   Sophocles,  Aristophanes,  etc,  African  traditional  festivals  were  also  celebrated  without  written   documentation  before  colonialism.  In  Nigeria,  this  can  be  seen  in  the  Alarinjo  theatre  which  was   predominant  in  the  Western  part  of  the  country  with  the  Apidan  Theatre  and  its  nature.   African/Nigerian  theatre  originated  and  developed  from  African/Nigerian  festivals  which  were   the  major  forms  of  entertainment  and  education  of  the  African  people  during  this  period.   Different  groups  performed  for  their  audiences  during  these  festivals  and  from  these,  Nigerian   theatre  grew.  As  many  scholars  have  posited,  Kacke  Gotrick  (1984,  p.35)  also  points  out  that  the   Apidan  Theatre  developed  from  the  male  religious  Egungun  Society.  He  goes  further  to  examine   different  myths  that  surrounded  the  evolution  of  the  Alarinjo  (Apidan)  theatre  which  is  believed   to  be  the  origin  of  indigenous  professional  theatre  in  Nigeria.  He  recounts  that;  “several  scholars   have  expressed  themselves  on  the  origin  of  this  religious  society.  The  Egungun  Society  was   created  as  a  result  of  the  influence  from  the  Nupe  culture  at  about  the  time  Alaafin  Ofinran  was   moving  back  to  Oyo  ile  from  Baribaland...”.  He  further  recounts  Adedeji’s  explanations  on  the   different  myths  surrounding  the  origin  and  development  of  the  Egungun  Society  and  the  actual   creation  of  the  Apidan  Theatre.  This  Adedeji  refers  to  as  the  beginning  of  professionalism  in   masque-­‐dramaturgy.  Gotrick  (1984,  p.37)  further  explains  that:   At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  Yoruba  land  suffered  internal  disintegration   and  invasion  from  the  north,  forcing  the  population  to  flee  to  the  south,  taking  the   Apidan  theatre  along.  A  new  centre  was  established  around  new  Oyo  and  Ibadan.   The  courts,  however,  had   little  time  for  entertainments  and   little   interest  either,   so  the  theatre  troupes  had  to  find  a  new  audience,  probably  also  because  of  the   changes   in   social   structure.   Thanks   to   the   Egungun   Society,   the   yearly   Egungun   festivals  supplied  an  audience,  glad  to  be  entertained  throughout  the  year  as  well.   When,  during   the   second  half  of   the  19th  century,   Ibadan  became  a   state  of   its   own,   the  Apidan   troupes  were  welcomed  by   the   public   as  well   as   by   the   ruling   class.  In  1893,  the  military  chief  commander  in  Ibadan  invited  Ayelabola  troupe  to   be  the  first  troupe  to  settle  permanently  in  the  town.   This  marked  the  eventual  development  of  professionalism  in  theatre  practice  in  Nigeria  and  even   when  the  Apidan  theatre  lost  part  of  its  audience  because  of  the  advent  of  Christianity,  Islam  and   Western  education,  professionalism  had  been  rooted  in  the  Nigerian  theatre.  J.A  Adedeji  (1978,   p.8)  on  his  part  avers  that,  “the  history  and  development  of  the  theatre  in  Yoruba  shows  that  it   has  borne  many  kinds  of  names  but  this  shows  the  extent  of  its  dynamism  both  as  a  pastime  and   as  a  professional  concern”.  He  talks  about  the  “native  drama”  whose  content  and  form  were   inspired  by  Yoruba  folklore  and  performance  styles  which  was  very  much  rudimentary  in  the   hands  of  the  natives  with  intent  on  self-­‐assertion.  The  performances,  according  to  him,  in  many   cases  were  based  on  stories  that  were  simple  and  familiar,  usually  drawn  from  folktales,  myths   ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 3 and  legend.  This  can  also  be  seen  in  the  position  of  Ogunba  (1978,  p.3)  when  he  states  that,  “in   many  communities  in  Africa…traditional  festivals  are  staged  from  time  to  time.  In  a  town  of   modest  size,  say  twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  there  may  be  as  many  as  ten  to  fifteen  festivals  in   a  year’s  cycle  of  ceremonies...”  This  according  to  him  is  symptomatic  of  West  African   communities  where  local  gods,  goddesses  and  spirits  have  continued  to  thrive  even  till  these   modern  times.     The  Alarinjo  theatre,  which  inculcated  the  African  traditional  festival,  was  that  which  was   communal  with  the  embellishment  of  dance,  music,  drums,  chants,  proverbs,  and  oral  traditional   performance  (storytelling).  Other  distinguishing  features  of  the  Alarinjo  theatre  were  the  high   reliance  on  improvisation  and  the  very  active  involvement  of  the  audience  in  its  performance.   This  is  because  the  audience  in  the  African  traditional  theatre  is  always  largely  involved  vocally,   enthusiastically  and  responsively  in  the  performances  because  of  the  communal  nature  of   African  festivals  and  theatre.  They  respond  to  choruses,  chants,  proverbs,  punctuate  stories  with   exclamations  and  they  generally  give  life  to  the  performance  in  the  theatre.  Also,  issues  raised  in   African  theatre  are  common  to  their  societies  with  the  involvement  of  rituals,  history,  myth,   legends,  employment  of  satire  to  expose  anti-­‐social  behaviours  in  their  society  and  also  the  use   of  the  language  peculiar  to  their  society.  One  cannot  begin  to  appreciate  the  rituals  and  dramas,   which  form  the  dynamics  of  a  traditional  African  festival,  until  he  has  reached  a  total   understanding  of  the  world-­‐view  and  belief  systems  which  index  the  festival  as  an  organic  part  of   the  religious  and  secular  life  of  traditional  Africa.  This  according  to  Stanley  Amah  (1982,  p.1)   makes  traditional  African  festival  “…more  than  just  a  festival;  it  is  a  symbolic  renewal  of  a   people’s  past  in  their  present,  a  way  of  recalling  their  origins  (whether  mystical  or  historical).  It  is   an  occasion  for  assertion  of  cultural  identity  and  self-­‐awareness,  which  is  more  involving”.     Theatre  in  the  colonial  era  in  Nigeria   The  19th  century  theatre  in  Nigeria  is  believed  to  have  been  the  turning  point  in  the  kind  of   theatrical  performances  that  the  Nigerian  stage  witnessed.  This  is  because  of  the  advent  of  the   Western  form  of  theatre  introduced  by  the  colonial  masters  to  the  country.  In  an  earlier  work,   Oni  (2004)  gives  a  vivid  account  of  how  the  theatre  of  this  period  engaged  in  a  technological   development  in  all  areas  of  the  theatre  especially  in  the  area  of  design  for  performances.  Having   traced  the  evolution  of  Nigerian  theatre  from  ritual,  festival  and  the  Alarinjo  theatre,  he  says   that:   The   emergence   of   the   other   forms   of   entertainment   in   the   late   19th   century   resulted   in   a   shift   from   this   traditional   form   of   entertainment   to   the   more   European-­‐inspired   one   of   concerts,   especially   among   the   educated   urban   city-­‐ dwellers...  The   late  19th  century,  beginning  from  1880,  are  the  earliest  recorded   attempts   at   dramatic   entertainments   and   concerts,  mainly   in   Lagos,   Ibadan   and   Abeokuta.  The  performances  were  organized  mainly  by  the  Catholic  and  Anglican   Church   groups   and  were  held  mostly   in   school   halls   and   in   churches.   (Oni   2004   86).   The  effects  of  these  theatrical  performances  were  not  only  on  the  performance  area  but  also  on   the  script,  as  Western  form  of  plays  were  the  earliest  performed  during  this  period.  Many  of   these  concerts  and  performances  were  done  during  Christian  festive  periods  and  the  contents   were  mainly  intended  for  the  European  society  and  the  few  educated  Africans  who  returned   ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 4 from  Freetown  in  Sierra  Leone.  Leonard  (1967,  p.30)  examines  the  effect  of  these  concerts  on   the  audience  as  he  posits  that  most  of  the  concerts  were  meant  strictly  for  the  educated  and   rich.  He  says  that  it  was;  “more  expensive  to  attend  an  entertainment  in  Lagos  than  in  London.”   As  the  performances  became  more  secular,  coupled  with  the  resistance  from  the  church  in  using   their  structures  for  such  performances,  there  was  the  need  to  get  separate  venues  for  the   performances.  This  led  to  the  construction  of  the  Glover  Memorial  Hall,  built  between  1887  and   1893.  The  effect  of  this  according  to  Oni  (2010,  p.89)  was  the  development  of  stage  lighting  and   erection  of  other  halls  for  performance.     Theatre  in  the  pre-­‐independence  era  in  Nigeria   Early  theatre  practitioners  in  Africa  and  Nigeria  used  their  theatre  to  showcase  the  rich  culture   embedded  in  their  traditional  festivals,  society  and  to  portray  their  heroes,  legend,  myths,  gods,   and  virtues  and  vices  in  the  society,  for  public  consumption.  These  proponents  such  as  Hubert   Ogunde  (who  started  his  theatre  in  1945),  Duro  Ladipo  (founded  the  Mbari-­‐Mbayo  in  1962)  and   Kola  Ogunmola  (who  founded  his  theatre  in  1947  was  at  his  peak  in  the  1950s  and  1960s)  were   true  to  making  theatre  the  meeting  point  of  their  culture  and  society.  Commenting  on  the  works   of  these  practitioners  mentioned  above,  Adedeji  (1978,  p.47)  says  that,  “The  singular  efforts  of   these  practitioners  in  developing  an  artistic  style  which  is  dynamic,  in  evolving  a  pattern  or   system  of  theatrical  operations  which  is  self-­‐sustaining  and  self-­‐propagating,  are  noteworthy   examples  for  future  generations  of  theatre  artists”.   The  Ogunde  factor  in  the  development  of  Nigerian  theatre  in   post-­‐colonial  Nigeria     Several  scholars  give  the  honour  for  the  development  and  growth  of  modern  Nigerian  theatre  to   Hubert  Ogunde  because  of  his  universally  known  and  acclaimed  creation  and  works.  Suffice  to   say  that  Ogunde’s  theatre  participated  in  the  cultural  renaissance  in  the  1940s  in  Nigeria  and  this   lends  credence  to  his  theatre  being  regarded  as  a  pioneering  one.  Ebun  Clark  (1979,  p.ix)   examines  the  basis  of  Ogunde  being  the  originator  of  professionalism  in  modern  Nigerian  theatre   when  she  comparatively  explains  various  scholars’  position  on  the  matter:   One   of   Ogunde’s   major   contributions   to   the   history   of   professional   theatre   in   Nigeria   is   that   he  withdrew   the   theatre   from   the   direct   patronage   of   court   and   church  and  gave  it  to  the  people.  He  did  not,  however,  originate  professionalism.   Some  would  say  that  he  did  not  originate  the  modern  theatre  either,  insisting  that   before   Ogunde   became   involved  with   theatre   in   1944,   there  were   other   artists   such   as   A.   B.   David,   Dawodu,   A.   A.   Layeni,   and   G.   Onimole,   all   of   whom  were   already  established  composers  of  Yoruba  music,  each  producing  Services  of  Songs   for  the  various  churches  that  commissioned  them.     However,  there  were  major  differences  between  what  these  earlier  artists  did.  Ogunde’s   productions  contained  dramatic  actions,  movements,  blockings,  and  scenarios  as  against  that  of   the  others.  Clark  (1979,  p.x)  asserts  that:   But  these  early  Services  of  Songs,  or  Native  Air  Operas  as  they  were  called,  were   from   all   accounts   devoid   of   dramatic   action   and   realism.   Their   European   equivalent  would  be  the  Oratorio  or  Cantata.  In  contrast,  when  Ogunde  produced   his  first  Native  Air  Opera,  The  Garden  of  Eden  and  the  Throne  of  God,  he  included   ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 5 dramatic  action  and  realism.  By  so  doing  he  directed  attention  away  from  a  pure   musical  form  to  the  more  composite  character  of  the  theatre.   This  risky  but  bold  move  laid  the  foundation  for  the  kind  of  theatre  that  was  prevalent  during  this   period  and  some  of  the  earlier  artists  eventually  turned  full  professional  breaking  away  from  the   norms.  In  the  bid  to  create  a  new  form  of  theatre  that  will  transcend  the  sphere  of  time  as   Ogunde  eventually  did,  there  were  various  things  he  did  and  some  influences  that  also  made  him   the  kind  of  artiste  he  was.  Clark  (1979,  p.4)  further  says  of  Ogunde  that:   He  may  not  have  given  Nigeria  her  first  professional  theatre;  his  theatre  differed   from   that   of   the   masked   players   in   many   ways.   In   the   Alarinjo   Theatre,   the   professional   actor   is   masked;   in   the   theatre   of   Ogunde   the   professional   actor   threw  away  his  mask  and  showed  his  person  for  the  first  time  to  his  audience.  We   can  therefore  say  that  Ogunde  began  the  first  professional  theatre  without  masks   in   Yoruba.   It   was   also   Ogunde   who   withdrew   the   theatre   from   the   traditional   patronage  of  the  court  and  religious  organizations  to  rely  solely  on  the  patronage   of  the  public.  Ogunde  thereby  gave  birth  to  the  first  Yoruba  commercial  theatre.   Many  scholars  over  the  years  have  showered  accolades  and  praises  on  Ogunde  for  his  trailblazing   role  in  the  development  of  modern  theatre  in  Nigeria  with  his  various  contributions.  Clark’s   account  of  his  contributions  is  summarized  as  follows:   • He  withdrew  the  theatre  from  the  direct  patronage  of  court  and  church  and  gave  it  to  the   people.   • He  included  dramatic  action  and  realism  to  his  kind  of  Native  Air  Opera.   • By  the  mid-­‐fifties,  he  had  moved  Yoruba  theatre  away  from  an  ‘opera’  form  to  a  ‘play’   form.   • Ogunde  began  the  first  professional  theatre  without  masks  in  Yoruba.   • Ogunde  withdrew  the  theatre  from  the  traditional  patronage  of  the  court  and  religious   organizations  to  rely  solely  on  the  patronage  of  the  public.   • He  also  took  theatre  indoors  from  the  traditional  open-­‐air  theatre.   • He  changed  the  form  of  publicity  from  oral  to  written  by  making  use  of  posters  and   adverts  in  newspapers  to  publicize  his  plays.   • He  changed  the  face  of  performance  from  the  theatre  in  the  round  to  the  proscenium   arch  theatre.   • He  was  the  first  to  use  modern  theatre  equipment  especially  in  the  area  of  design  in   performance.   • Ogunde  was  the  first  to  use  female  actors  as  star  artistes  in  his  plays.   • He  also  broke  away  from  the  apprenticeship  nature  of  training  upcoming  actors  by  paying   his  actors  no  matter  their  status  in  the  troupe.   • Ogunde  also  introduced  realism  and  dialogue  into  the  Yoruba  theatre.   Clark  (1979,  p.5)  concludes  that;  “The  greatness  of  Ogunde’s  achievement,  therefore,  is  that  he   changed  the  direction  of  Yoruba  theatre  and  gave  it  new  impetus  and  dimension.  Almost  single-­‐ handed,  he  established  what  is  now  loosely  termed  ‘Contemporary  Yoruba  Theatre’  of  which   there  are  many  exponents  but  of  which  Ogunde  remains  the  supreme  artist  and  father-­‐figure”.   Ogunde  is  also  partly  credited  with  the  development  of  celluloid  film  production  in  modern   Nigeria  because  of  his  trailblazing  role  in  the  early  days  of  film/cinema  in  the  country.  The   traditional  Alarinjo  Theatre  of  old  had  a  lot  of  influence  on  the  post-­‐colonial  theatres  of  people   ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 6 like  Hubert  Ogunde,  Duro  Ladipo,  Kola  Ogunmola  and  others.  This  also  explains  for  example  why   someone  like  Ogunde  had  music  and  dance  before  during  and  after  his  performances.  This  was   divided  into  the  opening  glee  (Ijuba),  play  proper  and  the  closing  glee.  To  examine  the  origin  of   this  nature  of  theatrical  composition,  Olu  Obafemi  quotes  Adedeji  as  pointing  ...  out  as  further   evidence  of  the  dominance  of  oral  tradition  in  Yoruba  theatre,  the  use  of  the  presentation   formula  of  most  traditional  verbal  arts,  especially  the  Ijuba  (Supplication  or  Pledge)  as  “Opening   Glee  or  Entrance-­‐Song”.  He  posits  that;  “this  theatrical  device  was  initiated  into  the  Yoruba   theatre  by  Esa  Ogbin,  the  primordial  masque-­‐dramaturge,  in  homage  to  the  Ologbin  of  Ogbin,   the  father  of  traditional  theatre.  Most  practitioners  of  this  theatre  employ  this  introductory   formula,  in  different  ways,  in  their  work  (Obafemi  2001,  p.15).     Duro  Ladipo  however  did  not  use  the  opening  glee  the  way  Ogunde  did  because  he  built  it  into   the  body  of  his  plays  as  a  part  of  the  structure  and  meaning  rather  than  treating  it  as  a   conventional  ornament.  According  to  Obafemi  (2001,  p.15);  “in  fact,  Ladipo’s  reliance  on   tradition  for  theatrical  expression  is  the  most  profound  of  all  the  theatre  practitioners  using  this   mode”.  However,  Ebun  Clark  asserts  that  Ladipo’s  reduced  popularity  among  Yoruba  audiences   could  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  he  did  not  follow  strictly  the  way  the  people  were  used  to   towing  the  Esa  Ogbin  structure.   The  cinema  culture  was  pioneered  in  the  1960s  and  1970s  by  people  such  as  Chief  Hubert   Ogunde,  Moses  Olaiya  and  Ade  Afolayan.  Nigerian  film  producers  around  the  late  ’80s  and  early   ’90s  started  a  revolution.  As  a  result  of  the  theatre  background  of  its  primary  practitioners,  the   Nigerian  cinema  in  the  ’60s  and  ’70s  was  characterized  by  the  elements  of  the  African  Total   Theatre  experience.  Onookome  Okome  (1993,  p.33)  reports  that:   The   Nigerian   folkloric   cinema   scene   is   no   doubt   an   extension   of   contemporary   Yoruba  ethnic  theatre  expression.  It  boasts  of  a  number  of  theatre  directors  who   for  one  reason  or  another  have  moved  into  filmmaking.  Prominent  among  these   are   Hubert   Ogunde,  Moses  Olaiya   (Baba   Sala)   and   Ade   Afolayan.   These   theatre   directors  turned  filmmakers  have  consistently  made  their  films  within  the  folkloric   mode.  These  are  the  true  folkloric  filmmakers.  These  filmmakers  have  consistently   expressed  the  cinematic  equivalent  of  their  ethnic  theatre  expression.         These  early  proponents  of  Nigerian  theatre  ran  independent  travelling  troupes  that  were   operated  as  family  businesses  with  wives  and  children  playing  the  roles.  They  performed  in   Yoruba  (the  native  tongue  of  western  Nigerians)  and  their  performance  style  employed  the  use   of  folklore.  Their  performances  were  replete  with  song,  dance,  ritual,  chants  and  many  more   cultural  colourations.  The  arrival  of  television  to  western  Nigeria  helped  provide  them  with  a   wider  reach.    Western  Nigerian  Television  Ibadan  (WNTV);  established  on  31st  October  1959,   afforded  Ogunde  and  Olaiya  the  opportunity  to  showcase  their  craft  to  a  ready  audience,  right  in   the  comfort  of  their  homes.  Okome  (37)  quotes  Moses  Olaiya  saying:   The  (NTV)  Ibadan  did  much  to  promote  my  theatre.   I  owe  more  than  50%  of  my   present   success   to   them.   For   about   two   to   three   years   from   1965,   we   concentrated  mainly  on  our  television  appearances.  We  became  very  popular  with   our  Yoruba  speaking  audience.  Our  audience  was  ready  made.  The  television  had   done  it.     The  theatre  practitioners  turned  filmmakers  had  succeeded  in  plying  their  trade  by  transmitting   the  values,  history,  pantheon,  and  general  way  of  life  of  the  Yoruba  people  through  their  folkloric   ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 7 mode  of  performance  that  had  morphed  from  the  live  theatre  form  to  motion  picture  (television   and  cinematic  drama).     English  university  theatre  in  Nigeria   The  development  of  university  theatre  has  also  been  traced  to  the  University  College,  Ibadan,   which  apart  from  being  the  first  university  in  Nigeria  was  also  the  first  university  to  have  a   theatre  department.  Before  the  coming  of  Geoffrey  Axworthy,  the  pioneer  Director  of  the  School   of  Drama  to  Nigeria  in  1956,  the  Student  Dramatic  Society  had  been  established  in  1948,  the   same  year  the  university  college  was  founded.  According  to  Ahmed  Yerima  (2005,  p.36)  while   quoting  Geoffrey  Axworthy:     There  is  no  doubt  that  it  started  with  students  of  Classics  and  English  Literature…   The  plays  they  presented  were  mostly  old  English  classic  plays  and  American  plays   which   had   no   relevance   to   the   university   audience.   They   almost   became   plays   through  which  the  colonial  masters  fulfilled  their  nostalgia  for  home.               Axworthy  was  to  change  the  course  of  these  productions  at  Ibadan.  He  recalls  that:   What  I  call  a  rebirth  of  a  true  University  College  Ibadan  Dramatic  Society  started   with  my  bringing  back   from  England   in  October   1958  Wole   Soyinka’s   plays,   and   the  performance  in  February  1959  of  both  plays;  I  mean  the  Swamp  Dwellers  and   The   Lion   and   the   Jewel.   The   plays   were   challenging   to   the   students   and   to   students  who   had   been   Soyinka’s  mates   at   Ibadan.   It   evoked   in   the   students   a   sense   of   personal   ambition   to  write  more   plays   on   such   themes.   I   remember   it   was  a  trigger  to  what  I  would  like  to  call  a  literary  boom.     The  drive  of  the  students  to  write  their  own  plays  must  have  had  profound  effect  on  the  kind  of   plays  and  theatrical  performances  that  followed  this  step.  In  addition,  the  formation  of  Soyinka’s   1960  masks  for  the  production  of  A  Dance  of  the  Forests  must  have  increased  the  thirst  for  more   African-­‐oriented  plays  in  Ibadan.  These  events  laid  the  foundation  for  the  establishment  of  other   university  theatres  in  Nigeria.     The  Soyinka  Factor   A  prominent  personality  in  the  development  of  drama  in  the  English  language  in  Nigerian  theatre   and  also  the  development  of  the  film  industry  that  cannot  be  overlooked  is  Wole  Soyinka.  His   contributions  according  to  different  scholars  go  beyond  the  stage  into  the  world  of  film  and   cinema.  Austine  Akpuda  (2008,  p.13)  says  of  his  milestone  contribution  that:   When  towards  the  end  of  2003  centenary  of  the  film  in  Nigeria,  the  organizers  of   the  Nigerian  film  festival  requested  Wole  Soyinka  to  make  a  presentation  at  their   forum,  they  were  without  knowing   it  celebrating  Soyinka’s  fortieth  year  as  a  key   player  in  the  film  industry.  Thus,  long  before  the  production  of  Kongi’s  Harvest  in   1970...   Soyinka  had  been   involved   in   the   industry   in   the  production  of   the   film,   ‘Culture   in  Transition’...  Similarly,  at  a  complementary  and  for  us  more  definitive   level  is  Soyinka’s  incursion  into  film  criticism  in  the  same  year.  That  Soyinka  would   make   these   contributions   in  a   year   that  marked   the  era  of   the   first  postcolonial   cinematographic  art  is  very  significant.       ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 8 The  efforts  of  Soyinka  cannot  be  undermined  in  the  eventual  transformation  of  the  theatre  stage   to  film  and  home  video  in  the  Nigerian  theatre  industry.   Development,  Transition  and  Innovation  in  Film  in  Nigeria   In  examining  the  development  of  film  in  Nigeria,  Ekwuazi  (2007,  p.132)  asserts  that:   The  fontal  stirrings  of  what  has  become  today  the  Nigerian  Film  industry  must  be   traced   to   the   frenetic   documentary   activities   of   the   British   Colonial   Film   Unit,   which   at   its   demise   had   succeeded   in   bequeathing   to   the   Federal   and   Regional   Film  Unit  a  strong  tradition  of  the  narrative  documentary.   The  sixties  did  not  see  the  production  of  feature  length  Nigerian  movies,  but  witnessed  the   television  productions  of  Segun  Olusola,  like  The  Palmwine  Drinkard  as  adapted  from  Kola   Ogunmola’s  stage  play  and  J.P  Clark’s  Song  of  a  Goat  (1964).  There  were  also  a  set  of  short  films   like  Edward  Horatio’s  Aguela  and  Two  Men  and  a  Goat.     However,  the  true  birth  of  the  Nigerian  industry  as  reported  by  Balogun  (1987)  came  with  the   creation  of  Calpenny  Nigeria  Ltd,  headed  by  Bayo  Imbovbere  and  Edward  Horatio.  The  next   decade  (1970-­‐1980)  signified  a  bountiful  harvest  for  the  Nigerian  film  industry.  There  were  only  a   handful  of  films  produced  (in  local  languages)  within  this  time  but  the  technical  quality  stood  its   ground  on  international  fronts.  Films  like  Son  of  Africa  and  the  movie  adaptation  of  Wole   Soyinka’s  stage  play  Kongi’s  Harvest  are  examples  to  note.  It  was  not  until  September  14,  1979   that  Decree  No.  61  established  the  Nigerian  Film  Corporation  (NFC).  This  new  institution   embodied  the  vision  of  the  government  of  the  time  for  the  Nigerian  film  industry.  Balogun  (1987,   p.24)  asserts  that  the  NFC  was  created  to  function  in  the  following  capacities:     • To  produce  films  for  domestic  use  and  export.   • To  establish  and  maintain  facilities  for  film  production  to  encourage  the  production  of   films  and  the  development  of  cinema  houses  by  way  of  financial  and  other  forms  of   assistance.   • To  acquire  and  distribute  films.   • To  establish  National  film  archives.   • To  train  technicians  and  other  professionals  of  the  film  industry  and  improve  their  skills.   • To  conduct  research  on  film  industry.   The  vision  of  this  new  body  was  a  laudable  one.  The  primary  aim  was  to  replicate  the   “Hollywood”  prototype  in  the  city  of  Jos,  with  plans  to  build  huge  film  complexes  on  300   hectares  of  land.  The  efforts  of  this  new  regulatory  body  however  were  stifled  by  an  unfortunate   turn  of  events.  Within  its  first  two  years  of  operation  (1982-­‐1983)  the  Nigerian  Film  Corporation   was  not  allocated  the  desired  budget  to  bring  the  vision  for  the  industry  to  fruition.  Early  theatre   practitioners  like  Hubert  Ogunde,  Moses  Olaiya,  and  Ola  Balogun  among  a  few  others  all  made   movies  that  were  shown  in  the  few  theatres  that  existed  during  the  1970s  and  1980s.  Their  films   included  Jaiyesimi,  Aiye,  Orun  Mooru  and  Taxi-­‐Driver,  all  done  in  Yoruba  (the  language  of  the   South  Western  States).  The  movies  produced  in  English  prior  to  Nollywood  included  Bisi   Daughter  of  the  River  and  Wole  Soyinka's  Blues  for  a  Prodigal,  Kongi’s  Harvest  amongst  a  few   others.  This  development,  along  with  the  incredibly  high  cost  of  film  stock  and  the  lack  of  skilled   manpower;  slowly  crippled  efforts  of    aspiring  Nigerian  film  makers,  film  rushes  had  to  be  taken   abroad  to  be  processed  and  the  Nigerian  economy  as  a  whole  had  began  a  downward  spiral.  The   film  practitioners  began  to  look  towards  video  tapes,  which  were  easier  to  post  produce.  The   ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 9 affordability  of  video  technology  was  not  the  only  factor  that  strengthened  the  prominence  of   the  home  video,  but  also  the  question  of  convenience.  Augusta  Okon  in  her  article  posted  on   ezinearticles.com  corroborates  this  view:   Home  Videos  were  produced  which  served  as  an  alternative  to  the  cinemas,  and   the  name  naturally  stems  from  the  fact  that  you  could  seat  within  the  comfort  of   your  home  and  watch  the  movies  produced  in  the  VHS  format  via  your  VCR.  Film   Makers   capitalized  on   the  gains  of   the  Home  Video   concept  offered,   and  began   producing  movies  using  the  Yoruba  language  as  the  means  of  communication.   Evolution  of  the  Video  Film   This  trend  was  finally  imprinted  into  the  annals  of  Nigerian  film  history  in  1992  with  the  release   of  Kenneth  Nnebue’s  Living  in  Bondage.  Adenugba  Olushola  (2007)  on  blogspot.com  comments   that  Nnebue’s  work  released  from  the  stables  of  Nek  Video  Link  marked  a  point  of  no  return  for   the  industry.  Subsequent  years  saw  the  rise  of  a  new  crop  of  movie  (home  video)  directors  and   producers  who  had  hitherto,  either  worked  behind  the  scene  or  acted  in  television  productions   like;  Amaka  Igwe  (Rattle  Snake  I  &  II,  Violated),  Tade  Ogidan  (Hostages,  Diamond  Ring,  Owo   Blow),  Zeb  Ejiro  (Immortal  Inheritance).  The  stage  was  set;  the  Nollywood  phenomenon  was   born.  Today,  the  Nigerian  movie  industry  has  grown  to  be  worth  over  US$500  million,  with  an   output  of  about  1,200  films  per  year.  (Oni  2010).     The   industry   is   therefore  known   for   the  quantity  of   films   that   is   released   to   the   market   and   without   much   consideration   about   the   quality   of   the   films.   The   industry   is   therefore   rated   the   second   for   the   largest   film   industry   by   UNESCO.   However  in  a  previous  work  (Oni  41)  I  observe:   The   ranking   of   the  Nigerian  Video   film   industry   notwithstanding,   the   sector   still   has   problems   to   contend  with.   First   is   the   quality   of  many   video   films   that   are   released  into  the  market  on  a  daily  basis.  The  issue  of  the  thematic  pre-­‐occupation   of   the   films   is   also   of   concern   as   most   of   them   still   border   on   love,   politics,   marriage  and  infidelity,  stories  of  the  occult  and  the  ever  present  blood  rituals.     The  collapse  of  the  cinema  industry  that  preceded  film/video  is  another  pertinent  issue  in  the   transition  and  challenges  the  industry  has  faced  over  the  years.  Oke  Olufemi  (2001,  pp.13–16)   and  Barclays  Ayakoroma  (2008,  pp.11–18)  examine  the  many  challenges  the  industry  faces  in   contemporary  times  and  list  as  follows:  Technical  Ability/Functions,  Repetitive  Storyline  and   Actors,  Short  Time  Frame  of  Production  Process,  Artiste  Remuneration/Welfare,  Lack  of   Institutional  Support,  Dearth  of  Sound  and  Efficient  Professionals,  Piracy,  and  Poor  Editing.   Conclusion   This  paper  has  attempted  to  examine  the  tradition,  innovations  and  changes  in  contemporary   Nigerian  theatre  tracking  the  various  high  points  from  the  traditional  perspective  to  the   contemporary  theatre.  The  benefits  of  this  transition  and  the  inherent  challenges  have  also  been   examined.  There  is  therefore  no  doubt  that  contemporary  Nigerian  drama  and  theatre  has   undergone  various  changes  in  recent  times  from  its  traditional  mode  of  the  Alarinjo  Theatre  to   the  Western  form  of  performances  that  started  in  the  late  19th  Century  with  the  concerts,   cantatas  and  native  air  operas.  From  these  early  beginnings,  the  theatre  developed  with  the   emergence  of  Hubert  Ogunde  and  his  contemporaries  and  then  started  to  merge  with  the   ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 10 production  of  celluloid  films  as  also  seen  in  the  works  of  Soyinka.  While  the  traditional-­‐modern   live  theatre  continues  to  wane,  the  video  film  formats  continue  to  grow  to  the  extent  that  the   UNESCO  now  ranks  the  Nigerian  film  industry  as  the  second  largest  in  the  world.  The  transitions,   innovations  and  the  challenges  continue  to  be  constantly  evolving.   References:   Adedeji,  Joel  1969.  The  Alarinjo  Theatre:  The  Study  of  a  Yoruba  Theatrical  Art  Form  from  its   Earliest  Beginnings  to  the  Present  Time”,  Unpublished  Ph.D.  Thesis,  University  of  Ibadan.   Adedeji,  Joel  1978.  “Alarinjo:  Traditional  Yoruba  Travelling  Theatre”.  Theatre  in  Africa.  Ed.  Oyin   Ogunba  &  Abiola  Irele.  Ibadan:  Ibadan  UP   Amah,  Stanley  1982.  Okere  Juju:  Itsekiri  Religious  Ritual  Festival.  Nigeria  Magazine.  Lagos   Akpuda,  Austine  2008.  “Wole  Soyinka:  Film  Critic  and  Intellectual  Midwife  of  the  Nigerian  Video   Film”.  Film  Nigeria:  An  International  Journal  of  the  Nigerian  Film.  Ed.  Ezechi  Onyerionwu.   Aba:  Leadership  and  Literary  Achievers  Series.  Vol.  1  No.  1.   Ayakoroma,  Barclays  Foubiri  2008.  “Trends  in  the  Development  of  Contemporary  Nigerian  Video   Film  Industry”.  Trends  in  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Theatre  in  Nigeria.  Eds.  Duro  Oni  and   Ahmed  Yerima.  Lagos:  Society  of  Nigerian  Theatre  Artistes  (SONTA)   Balogun,  Francoise  1987.  The  Cinema  in  Nigeria.  Delta  Publications  (Nigeria)  Limited   Barbatsis,  G.  2005.  “Narrative  Theory”  in  Handbook  of  Visual  Communication,  Kenneth  Louis   Smith,  Sandra  Moriarty,  Gretchen  Barbatsis,  Keith  Kenney.  LEA,  Mahwah   Clark,  Ebun  1979.  Hubert  Ogunde:  The  Making  of  Nigerian  Theatre.  Ibadan:  University  Press  Plc   Echeruo,  Michael  1977.  Victorian  Lagos:  Aspects  of  Nineteenth  Century  Lagos  Life.    London  and   Basingstoke:  Macmillan  Education  Limited   Ekwuazi,  Hyginus  2007.  “Nigeria  Literature  and  the  Development  of  the  Nigerian  Film  Industry”,   Ibadan  Journal  of  Theatre  Arts.  Vol.  1,  No.  1   Fisher,  Walter.  1984.  “Narration  as  a  Human  Communication  Paradigm:  The  Case  of  Public  Moral   Arguments”.  Communication  Monographs.  Vol  51,  pp  1-­‐22   Fisher,  Walter.  1987.  Human  Communication  as  Narration:  Toward  a  Philosophy  of  Reason,  Value   and  Action.  Columbia:  University  of  South  Carolina  Press.   Gotrick,  Kacke  1984.  Apidan  Theatre  and  Modern  Drama.  Goteborg:  Graphic  Systems  AB   Haynes,  Jonathan  1997.  (Ed.)  Nigerian  Video  Films.  Jos.  Nigerian  Film  Corporation   Jeyifo,  Biodun  1984.  The  Yoruba  Travelling  Theatre  of  Nigeria.  Lagos.  Nigeria    Magazine   Leonard,  Lynn  1967.  “The  Growth  of  Entertainment  of  Non-­‐African  Origin  in  Lagos  from  1866-­‐ 1920  with  Special  Emphasis  on  Concert,  Drama,  and  the  Cinema.”  Unpublished  M.A   Thesis,  University  of  Ibadan..   Obafemi,  Olu  2001.  Contemporary  Nigerian  Theatre:  Cultural  Heritage  and  Social  Vision.  Lagos,   Nigeria.  Centre  for  Black  and  African  Arts  and  Civilization  (CBAAC)   Ogunba,  Oyin  1978.  Theatre  in  Africa.  Ibadan:  Ibadan  University  Press   Ogunbiyi,  Yemi  1981.  Nigerian  Theatre  and  Drama:  A  Critical  Profile.  London:  Pitman  Press   Oke,  Olufemi.  “Nollywood:  A  Commercial  Haven  or  Corrective  Mechanism”.  Reading  and   Producing  Nollywood:  An  International  Symposium.  Faculty  of  Arts,  University  of  Lagos   and  National  Film  &  Video  Censors  Board.  March  23rd-­‐25th,  2011.   ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia Page 11 Okon,  Augusta.    ezinearticles.com   Olushola,  Adenugba.  http.Blogspot.com   Oni,  Duro  1985.  “Plays  and  Presentation  Modes  in  Nigeria:  A  Technical  Outlook”,  Nigerian   Theatre  Journal  Vol.  2  No.  1  &  2.    pp.  198  -­‐  205.     Oni,  Duro.  2002.  “Theatre  and  Aesthetics:  The  Example  of  Hubert  Ogunde”.  Humanity,  Jos   Journal  of  General  Studies.  Vol.  4,  No.  1.  pp.  154-­‐161   Oni,  Duro  2004.  Stage  Lighting  Design:  The  Nigerian  Perspective.  Lagos:  Concept  Publications   Limited.   Oni,  Duro  2010.  Lighting:  Beyond  Illumination.  Lagos:  University  of  Lagos  Press   Onookome,  Okome  et  al.  1993.  Studies  in  Film  and  Television.  Ibadan:  Abi  Print  and  Pack  Ltd     Wilson,  Edwin  and  Goldfarb,  Alvin  1991.    Theatre:  The  Lively  Art.  U.S.A.  Trump  Waldman   Graphics  Inc   Yerima,  Ahmed  2005.  Modern  Nigerian  Theatre:  The  Geoffrey  Axworthy  Years,  1956-­‐1967.   Ibadan:  Krafts  Book  Ltd