1 -~.- ..,., .. -~.;...- , .' ".-.- /----:-.-:='-.~, ,/' .-"A i JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH ISSN: 0795 - 2333 March, 2012 JER-17, No.1 CONTENTS • Assessing The Safety of Drinking Water Sources in Ado-Odo/Ota Local Government Area, Ogun State, Nigeria E.O. Longe, D.O. Omole and C.S. Mgbachi 1-9 • Finite Element Analysis of Strip Footings on Sand-Filled Soils J.O. Afolayan, KJ. OsinubI and I. Abubakar. 10-20 • Effect of Mould Preheating and PQrging of Cast on Mechanical Properties of 1200 \. Aluminum Alloy S.O. Adeosun, 0.1. Sekunowo, S.A. Balogun and W.A. Ayoola 21-28 • Bus Stop Location for Improved Movement on an Urban Arterial in Borin Metropolis, Nigeria 0.0. Adeleke and Y. A. Jimoh 29-34 • Crushed Waste Glass as A Partial Replacement of Cement in Normal Concrete Production with Sugar Added as an Admixture G. L. Oyekan and A.O. Oyelade 35-41 • SCS Curve Number and GIS Approach to Rainfall Surface Runoff Estimation in Ogun Sub- Watershed P.c.Nwilo, N.D. Olayinka, KU. Erege and A.E. Adzandeh .42-55 • The Use Of Corn Husk Ash As Partial Replacement For Cement In Concrete A. A. Raheem, E. M. Osika and A. M. Adedokun : 56-63 • Optimization Face Recognition Algorithm Using Artificial Neural Network E.O. Nwoye, I.B. Oronto, Y.M. Chukwuma and S.c. Nwaneri 64-72 • Spatial Variations and Distributions of Some Waste Stabilization Pond Parameters J.e. Agunwamba, J.O Ademiliyi and N.L. Obasi . • Derivation of Soil Texture Map Using Gamma Ray Spectrometry Method A.M. Fakeye, P.O. Aitsebaomo and c.c. Osadebe 83-94 • Guide to Authors 95-96 11 - - -_._- ---------_._-;---_.-._-. -- .. Journal of Engineering Research, Vol. 17, No.1, March, 2012 - E.O. Longe, D.O. Omole and C.S. Mgbachi ASSESSING THE SAFETY OF DRINKING WATER SOURCES IN ADO-ODO/OTA LOCAL GO~ERNMENT AREA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA E.O. LONGE*, D.O. OMOLE** and C.S. MGBACHI** *Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba, Lagos State, Nigeria. **Departlnent of Civil Engineering, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University Canaanland, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. ABSTRACT This study investigated the sources and quality of domestic water supply to 124 households in 16 communities of Ado-Odo/Ota Local Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria. In order to achieve the set objective, field surveys .as well-E!s administration of questionnaires were carried out ~ile ten water samples from three different water supply sources were collected and analyzed for various water quality variables of interest. The field survey was carried out between April and May 2009. From survey results, surface and groundwater are the two major water supply sources in the investigated area. On coverage level, only 1.6% of the sampled population is serviced by pipe bome water from the state water works while 79.1% and 17.7% obtain their domestic water supply from groundwater and surface water sources respectively. The remaining 1.6% of the sampled population is serviced by private water vendors. Laboratory results show that water from all the sources investigated is generally slightly acidic, while levels of cadmium were higher than the Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water quality limit ofO.003mg/l specified for potable water supply. The results of chemical and microbiological analyses also reveal impairments in quality of River Atuwara, a major source of domestic water supply and intake for the state public water work with high levels of Pb, Ni and Total Coliform. The water quality status of the various sources of domestic and public water supply in the surveyed area is unsafe and thus poses health concerns to users if not adequately treated. Keywords: Water Sources, safety, effluents, health hazards 1.0 INTRODUCTION Water is one of the most vital natural resources required for the sustainability of alJ forms of life on earth. There is an ever increasing demand for water in-spite of its widespread availability. This demand is occasioned by the fact that terrestrial life is sustained only by fresh water which represents only 2.5% of the total world water and this percentage is not readily available for direct human use. Over 70% of the available fresh water is frozen up in polar ice caps while an estimated 30% of the remaining fresh water is trapped in aquifers hence, only about J.~07Sc of all freshwater in the form of rivers, streams, brooks and lakes is directly available for man's use (Krantz. and Kifferstein, 2003; UNESCO, 2006; Omole and Longe, 2008). Salt water accounts for more than 97.5%. Water availability and water quality are two different issues. Availability of 1 Journal of Engineering Research, Vol. 17, No.1, March, 2012 - E.O. Longe, D.O. Omole and C.S. Mgbachi water should match safety of drinking water. In most developing nations of the world, water is not only scarce but also unsafe. The state of human health has inextllcably been linked to a range of water-related conditions: safe drinking water, adequate sanitation, minimized burden (\f wOlter-related disease -md healthy freshwater ecosystems. In Nigeria, different sources of water supply have been under threat of pollution from anthropological activities. In its report, World Bank (1995), decried high level of contamination of most surface water bodies by discharges of industrial effluents, sewage and agricultural wastes. Ota town hosts more than 84 registered manufacturing industries prominent among them are food and beverages, agricultural products processing, pharmaceuticals, paints, chemicals and metallurgical. The food, beverages and raw agricultural companies produce wastes that are high in Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). The metallurgical, pharmaceuticals, paints and chemical manufacturing outfits produce varying degrees of acidic and hazardous wastes with high concentrations of metals. Uncontrolled disposal of industrial effluents into rivers is a serious environmental and health problem for users. The current study was aimed at assessing the safety of different water supply sources in Ota town and environs and .the impacts of industrial effluents on the existing water supply sources. 2.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD 2.1 Study Area Ado-Odo/Ota Local Government Area (LGA) is located between the boundaries of Lagos and Ogun States; it is also a border town between Nigeria and Benin Republic. Ado-Odo/Ota LGA is the most populous among the 20 Local Government Areas in Ogun State with a population of 526, 000 people (NBS, 2006). It has an average elevation of 53 m above sea level, with high run-off even with minimum precipitation (Ornole, 2010). Rivers Atuwara and Il10 are the major rivers in the LGA and both are located within the River Owo catchment. The two river bodies are sources of a number of economic activities to the people in Ado- Odo/Ota LOA. Such economic activities include sand mining, fishing, transportation and lumbering. Generally, both rivers also serve as sinks for domestic, commercial and industrial wastes (Omole and Longe, 2008; Omole, 2011). 2.2 Field Survey, Laboratory Analysis Sampling and Data on domestic water supply sources to 124 households in the. following 16 randomly selected comml1nitieswithin Ado-Odo/Ota LGA (Figure 1) was collected, while direct questionnaire administration to each family head of the 124 selected households was followed by personal interviews. A sub-sample of the respondents to the questionnaire had a detailed analysis of the sources, quantity and quality of sources of domestic water supply. The surveyed communities are detailed in Figure 1. Field survey, sampling of effluent and water samples from Rrver Atuwara, public tap, groundwater and water vendors were carried out in April and May 2009. In an effort to investigate the extent of contamination of water sources, ten samples from groundwater and public tap sources were collected. The sampling points were designated as B 1, B2, B6, B9 and B 10 (borehole source), D3, D4, D7 and D8 (dug well source), and T5, the only public tap source (Figurel). In order to assess the water quality level of River Atuwara, two water samples were collected at two different points, upstream and downstream of the raw water intake point (w) for domestic water supply by Ogun State Water Corporation (Figure 1). Water samples were collected in 2-litre plastic bottles. Prior to collection as part of the quality J014 contrc washe with ( the fi bottle water was I; while and tr 2.3 All 1 follox l 6 '= Figu 3.0 3.1 Frof hous ware surf, wate popi (Tat 2 •• .---"----,.~---"""- Journal of Engineering Research, Vol. 17, No.1, March, 2012 - E.O. Longe, D.O. Otnole and c.s. Mgbaclti r~·================~\ I I I I f 1 r :l o .r d control measures; all the bottles were washed with non-ionic deterge-nt and rinsed with de-ionized water prior to usage. Before the final water sampling was taken, each bottle was rinsed three times with sampled water at the point of collection. Each bottle was labeled according to sampling location while all the samples were preserved at 4°C and transported to the laboratory. 2.3 Analytical methods All the samples were analyzed for the following specific physico-chemical ;:..;:: parameters and heavy metals of interest depending on -','atel' supply source; p+l. total dissolved solid: (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), dissol~eJ oxygen (DO), chloride (en, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrite (N02-), nitrate (N03-), sulphate (S04-2), calcium (Ca2+), lead (Pb2+), cadmium (Cd2+), iron (Fe2+), magnesium (Mg2+). The physico-chemical analyses of water and wastewater samples were carried out in accordance to standard analytical methods (APHA, 1995). Data were evaluated using standard statistical methods (Kottegoda and Rosso, 1997; Gupta, 2009). \. Lt:~~~~~Hn. l !=inlet Stream "Tributary::~:.nne II l,Net9i" wcrk s ether in-:ustri$s ?l':::} u, 6 Tap v,ater ee r-rcte 6-~,9h-:::;1>~ •••.ater sarncje i czse-c e ), d Figure 1:Map of Ado/Odo Ota showing locations of interest IC Ie :r .s, :Ie ty 2 3.0 3.1 RESUL TS AND DISCUSSION Sources of Water From survey results, 79.1 % of the households interviewed have their domestic water supply as groundwater, 17.7% as surface water, 1.6% as public pipe borne water while the remaining 1.6% of the population is served by water vendors (Table 1). By inference more than 64% of the 124 hoi seholds surveyed have the.i domestic \ -at-r ~~lIT!:'fro.n unreliable and unsafe sources (dug wells, rives and vendors). Public water supply coverage to the residents of Ado-Odo/Ota ~"GA is very low and it is not on track with the Millenium Development Goals target on acces s to safe drinking water. A great 3 -.~---~..------'---. -~---~---- Journal of Engineering Research, Vol. 17, No.1, March, 2012 - E.O. Longe, D.O. OmoZe and C.S. Mgbachi application of lime, this deficiency can be easily corrected. The obtained levels of total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness and chloride varied from 13 to 105 mg/I,:3.10 to 6.70 mg/l and l7.91 to 31.20 mg/l respectively. The mean concentrations, TDS (46.10 mg/I), total hardness (23.59 mgll) and chloride (4.62 mg/l) are far below the stipulated NSDWQ tolerance concentrations of 500mg/l, 150 mg/l and 250 mg/l for TDS, total hardness and chloride respectively. Aside from the deficiency caused by the acidic nature of the groundwater and tap water, the potability of both sources becomes suspect by the noted generally. high levels of cadmium in all water samples. Lowest level of of cadmium (0.02mg/l) was obtained in :B2 while the highest, 0.07mg/l in B6. Obtained mean value for all sources is 0.04mg/1. From field observation,. B6 was located about 100m downstream of a battery manufacturing plant which discharges its wastewater into the natural drain channels and hence could be the possible source of the high level of cadmium in the borehole water. Table 2: Physico-chemical characteristics of Groundwater and tap water sources PARAMETERS SAMPLES BI B2 D3 D4 T5 B6 D7 D8 B9 BIO (rng/l) NSDWQ pH 5.79 5.92 5.96, 5.76 6.37 5.98 6.19 6.71 6.56 5.96 6.5 - 8.5 Conductivity , .' (p.8/cm) 25.00 56.00 202.0 38.00\. 180.0 63.00 57.00 57.00 147.0 64.00 1000 -, DO 11.60 8.60 8.40 9.60 9.60 9.00 8.80 9.40 9.20 9.80 None TDS 13.00 29.00 105.0 20.00 93.00 34.00 30.00 29.00 75.00 33.00 500 TSS 5.00 4.00 7.00 3.00 3.00 ND 8.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 15 Total Hardness 18.61 20.66 19.87 17.91 30.68 18.01 29.11 31.20 28.19 21.61 150 Chloride 3.10 5.90 3.60 5.10 ~.30 5.00 5.30 4.40 3.80 6.70 250 Cadmium 0.042 0.020 0.Q38 0.039 0.040 0.073 0.051 0.021 0.037 0.041 0.003 Lead ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NO 0.01 Iron 0.338 ND ND ND ND NO ND ND ND NO 0.3 Total Coliform 0.00 NI 0.00 0.00 4.00 NI NI NI NI NI 10(MPNIl OOml) NOTES: B: Borehole; D: Developed well; T: Tap water; NSDWQ-National Standard for Drinking Water Quality (FMEnv. 2007): ND: Not Detected y .r d y d :0 Ie The magnitude of cadmium levels in water samples are 7 to 24 times higher than the tolerance level of 0.003mg/1 specified by the national requirements for drinking water quality (NSDWQ, 2007). For instance, obtained level of cadmium in the public tap water of 0.04mg/l is 13.3 times higher than the national acceptable level. The observed high levels of cadmium in the water samples render all the water supply sources unsafe for human consumption and therefore pose great risk to human health. Cadmium is known to cause kidney failure due to bio- accumulation in the human body. Known ~r Q te 4 . sources of cadmium pollution in the environment include corrosion of galvanized pipes, batteries, television phosphors and metallurgical activities (WHO, 2004a). 5 journal of Engineering Research, Vol. 17, No.1, March, 2012 - E.O. Longe, D.O. Omole and C.S. Mgbachi effort and improvement will therefore be needed on the part of the state government to significantly lower the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water in the LOA. Table 1:Distribution of domestic water sources by household Source Type :-\0. of Hcu~ehold Percentage .; Figure 2: Fetching of water from River Atuwara by Iju town residents 3.2 Groundwater and Tap water Quality Analytical results of physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater and tap water samples are presented in Tables 2 and 3. The groundwater and the tap water are generally acidic with pH values ranging from 5.76 and 6.71. The mean pH value of 6.12 obtained for both sources is below the pH tolerance range of 6.5 to 8.5 recommended by 'the National Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) for potable water. However, water samples from D8 and B9, a developed well and a borehole respectively conforms in quality with NSDWQ stipulated pH standard (NSDWQ, 2007). It is of importance also to note that the pH value of 6.37 recorded for the tap water supplied by the State Water Corporation equally falls short of the NSDWQ: pH value requirements. With appropriate, j app east diss chk 6.7( res! (46 chk stip of: tote Asi aCJ( Tal NO' Det, Th sat tol na qu ob w, th( hi! rei fo gr. kll ac 4 olc~ ?S 1. Dev ).33 2.85 2.40 .73 .18 1.01 cular 008). cidic from fresh it is stem The bod)'... level )04b, [ournal of Engineering Research, Vol. 17, No.1, March, 2012 - E.O. Longe, D.O. OmoZe and C.S. Mgbaclii Parameters Upstream Downstream (1Il~/I) Table 4.' Physico-Chemical Characteristics of River Atl~wara NSDWQ 6.8·8.5 lOOO IS SOO NS NS NS NS NS 2S0 SO 100 1 0.2 0.3 3 0.Q1 0.003 0.07 " -, 0.05 10 pI! 6.8 (J.B Conductivitv ..;S/Oll) 85 7(, TSS 0.118 0.030 TDS 0.060 0.170 Ca 8.82 9.6 l\'lg 13.18 35 BOD IS 18.0 COD 67.S 88.02 DO 34 2.4 CI 56.72 49.63 NO.1 34 225 SO, 30.0 32.0 Cu 0.18 0.30 Mn 0.024 ND Iron 0.014 0.008 Zinc 1.396 1.462 Lead 0.090 0.101 Cd NO NO Ni 1.382 1.181 Cr 0.014 ;.ND -, Total Coliform (cfull00ml) 160 1000 Notes: NO - Not detected. NS- Not Specified Dissolved oxygen (DO) values obtained for at upstream and downstream of the state water works were 3.4 and 2.4 mg/l as shown in Table 4. Even though there is no limit specified for the DO by NSDWQ for water potability, DO is however a measure of the degree of pollution by organic matter. the destruction of organic substances as well as the degree of self- purification capacity of the water body. From literature. the standard for sustaining aquatic life is stipulated at 5mg/l of DO. a concentration below this value could adversely affect aquatic biological life, whi Ie concentrations below 2mg/l may lead to death of most fishes (Chapman. 1992). Mean DO level for Atuwara River stands at 2.9mg/l. The BOD concentrations ranged between 15.0 and 18 mg/l with a mean concentration of 16.5 mg/l, those of COD ranged between 67.5 and 88.02mg/l with a mean concentration of 77.76mg/J. Both the BOD and COD indicate the potential dissolved oxygen needed to 6 breakdown organic matter in water. There are also no specific guidelines proposed for BOD and COD in the national standard for drinking water quality for the DO. The mean values of 16.5 mgll and 77.76mg/l for BOD and COD respectively are well below the stipulated WHO maximum allowable limits of 30 mgll and lOOmg/1 for human consumption (WHO, 2004b). The concentrations of all other water quality parameters such as total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, total hardness, sulphate, nitrate and chloride found in River Atuwara conform to the national drinking water quality standard (Table 4). Results of analysis {)f W((;(>1 samples from A1UW L., (1979), "Water quality sourcebook: A guidexto water quality parameters". Inland waters Directorate, Water Quality branch, Ottawa, Canada, pp: 88. NBS, (2006), "Population Census. National Bureau of Statistics, Federal Republic of Nigeria available at hup:! /v/ww. ni gerianstat. go\'o 11g/C01111eeti onslPop'006 .pdf NSDWQ, (2007), "Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality". Nigerian Industrial Standard NIS 554, Standard Organization of Nigeria, pp: 30. the S), By 1 to and the Omole D.O., (2010). "Water Quality Modeling: Case Study of the Impact of Abattoir Effluent on River Illo, Ota, Nigeria". LAP Lambert Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. KG, Saarbrucken, Germany.A), n of 8 Omole. D.O., and E.O. Longe. (2008). "An assessment of the impact of abattoir effluents on River 1110, Ota, Nigeria". J. Environ. Sci. & Tech. )(2).56-64. Omole D.O., (2011), "Development of Reaeration coefficient for Rivers in Nigeria: Case Study of River Atuwara. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. KG, Saarbrucken, Germany. UNESCO, (2006), "Water a shared responsibility". The United Nations World water Development Report 2. New York, 601. WHO, (2004a), "Cadmium in Drinking-Water. Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Geneva", pp: 15. Available at https://www.who.int/water sanitation health/dwq/chemi eals/GlUm iU111.!ldf " WHO, (2004b), "Guidelines for Drinking . rd. Water Quality". 3 Edn. Vol. 1Recommendation, Geneva, pp: 515. World Bank, (1995), "Nigeria Strategic Options for Redressing IndustriaIPollution". World Bank, Industry and Energy Division, West Central Africa Dept., Vols. 1 and 2. 9