211 Idongesit Eshiet INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: AN ASSESSMENT OF WOMEN MOBILE PHONE RECHARGE CARD SELLERS IN LAGOS METROPOLIS Idongesit Eshiet Abstract The revolution in Information and Communication Technology as witnessed in present times has impacted livelihoods through increased productivity, improved market access, and new employment opportunities. One of the most prevalent ICT devices is the mobile phone, used by almost five billion people around the world. This has in effect created opportunities for other support services such as the sale of recharge cards. This study investigated the impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on the livelihoods of women residing in urban centres, with a focus on women mobile phone recharge card sellers in Lagos metropolis. A sample size of twenty women who engaged in retail and bulk sales of mobile phone recharge cards was randomly drawn from four LGAs within the Lagos metropolis. In-depth Interview method was used to collect the qualitative data from the respondents. The study empirically examined the impact of income generated from the sales of recharge cards on women’s livelihoods with a focus on their capacity to provide foodstuffs for households, pay children’s school fees, pay house rents and own tangible household assets. Findings reveal that women have become financially empowered through sale of recharge cards and so are able to contribute to household’s upkeep, however, this has not been sufficient to make them escape from poverty. Similarly, access to higher income through the business has been hindered by their low investment capital. The study recommends that women recharge cards sellers should organise into an association and use the platform for accessing microcredit from financial institutions. Keywords: Empowerment, income generation, livelihoods, household, urban Introduction Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application, encompassing-radio, television, cellular phones, computer, hardware and software, satellite systems, 10 212 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet etc., as well as the various services and applications associated with them (Techterms, 2015). ICT facilitates the creation, storage, management and dissemination of information by electronic means. In present times, ICT has become ubiquitous and has permeated all facets of human existence. Thus, today’s society could rightly be referred to as an information and knowledge society (Internet World Stats, 2017). Among the various ICT devices, the mobile phone has become one of the most ‘ubiquitous’. It is estimated that about 5 billion people use the mobile phone globally, with 3.4 billion of such users connected to the internet (Statista, 2017). Nigeria ranks 7th out of the topmost fifteen countries with the highest number of mobile phone users globally. It has 150 million subscribers with 76 percent of its internet traffic happening on the mobile phone (JUMIA, 2017; National Bureau of Statistics, 2016). With this, the active usage of the mobile phone has created opportunities for the provision of support or ancillary services to users, such as the sale of recharge cards, phone accessories, repairs, etc. These support income generating services, which often could be started with very low start-up capital, have provided employment opportunities for men and women. Such is the case of the sale of recharge cards, which has become particularly attractive as a means of income generation to women residing in the urban centres. Statement of Problem Nigeria, although a resource-rich country with high economic growth rates over the years until fairly recently, still has a great number of its population living in poverty. In fact, the poverty level has been growing over the years amidst economic growth. The World Bank (2018) report indicates that Nigeria is the country with the most poor people globally, having 97 million of its population being extremely poor. A major cause of poverty in Nigeria is lack of access to employment. The National Bureau of Statistics (2017) reports that the rate of unemployment has been on the increase with the unemployment rate standing at 18.8 percent and the unemployment plus underemployment rate standing at 40.0 percent. Idongesit Eshiet Information and Communication Technology’ and Poverty Alleviation... | 213 In terms of gender distribution, 21.2 percent of women are unemployed as compared to 16.5 percent of men. With regards to rural/urban disparity, 16.4 percent of rural dwellers are unemployed as compared to 23.4 percent of urban dwellers. Similarly, 26.9 percent of rural dwellers are underemployed as compared to 9.0 percent of urban dwellers. With this high level of unemployment, the opportunity provided for income generation through the provision of support services to mobile phone users, has become an employment option for women in the urban centres. Hence, within the Lagos metropolis, it could be observed that there are many women involved in the business. This study, therefore, investigated the impact of income generated from the sale of recharge cards on women’s livelihoods, with a focus on their capacity to provide foodstuffs for household, pay children’s school fees; pay house rents, and own tangible household assets. The Concept of Poverty Conceptualising poverty is a herculean task due to its complex, multifaceted and multidimensional nature. However, the commonest mode of conceptualising poverty is in relation to economic well-being of households or persons. From this perspective, poverty is measured as a situation of low income or low consumption. It refers to the lack of income to meet the basic necessities of life such as food, clothing, shelter, health, etc. (World Bank, 2018). From the income approach, the World Bank (2018) reports that 736 million people accounting for 10 percent of the world population still live in extreme poverty of less than US$1.90 a day, with sub-Saharan Africa accounting for a half of the global poor with 413 million of its population (41.0 percent), living in extreme poverty. However, due to the multidimensional nature of poverty, data based on estimates of income or consumption expenditure, only partially capture the state of poverty, especially in the developing world. Poverty in the developing countries is a far more comprehensive state of being, which encompasses not just material want but also powerlessness and marginalisation (Ghosh, 1998). In recognition of these limitations, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 2010 developed the multidimensional approach to measuring poverty (Alkire & Santos, 2010). 214 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is a valuable complement to income poverty measures. It addresses multidimensional poverty, focusing on the critical dimensions of health, education, and living standards. It considers the many overlapping deprivations that poor people experience in ten indicators - years of schooling, school attendance, nutrition, child mortality, cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing, and assets (Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, 2018). Multi - dimensionally, 1.3 billion people are poor globally, while 342 million of them reside in sub-Saharan Africa with Nigeria having the highest number (97 million). Poverty can be absolute or relative. Absolute poverty means being monetarily and multi-dimensionally poor. It means not only lacking income to meet the basic necessities of life but experiencing overlapping deprivations in other critical areas of well-being. Thus, absolute poverty refers to a condition of being deprived of such basic human needs as food, clothing, safe drinking water, sanitation, health, education, and decent living standards (Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, 2018). On the other hand, relative poverty refers to a situation in which a person’s or household’s provision of goods is lower than that of others within the same context. It differs between countries and over time (Chen & Ravallion, 2008). In terms of women and men, gender mediates poverty with women being disproportionately represented among the poor. Feminist scholars argue that poverty is feminised as they observe that women constitute a majority of the world’s poorest people, with most of them suffering from absolute poverty. Similarly, women face more barriers to overcoming poverty than men and so are more prone than men to persistent poverty (Gomick & Natascia, 2015). The United Nations Women (2018) reports that globally, for every 100 men between ages 25-34 years living in extreme poverty, there are 122 women. Poverty is caused by a myriad of factors. These include inadequate access to employment opportunities, inadequate physical assets, inadequate access to markets, destruction of natural resources, lack of power to participate in the design of development programmes, and inadequate access to assistance for those living at the margin. Poverty alleviation, therefore, refers to any change for the better in these conditions. Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 215 Idongesit Eshiet Feminist Perspective to Women’s Poverty Feminist scholars focus their analysis of poverty on explaining the gender dimensions and social costs of poverty. The perspective attributes women’s poverty to pervasive gender inequalities, which is one of the oldest and most pervasive forms of inequality in the world. Gender inequality denies women their voices, devalues their work and makes women’s position unequal to men’s, from the household to the national and global levels (Walby, 1990). Despite the various steps taken to address gender inequality and the remarkable progress made over the years, there has still been no country where women have achieved economic equality with men. Presently, globally, women still earn 23 percent less than men with their labour force participation being 63 percent as compared to 94 percent for men (UN Women, 2018). Feminist scholars argue that women’s poverty is mediated by class, demographic changes, and public policy. In particular, the feminisation of poverty, they argue, is intimately linked to the economic and social policy regime of any given society, as well as to trends in women’s employment, wages, and household headship (Moghadam, 2005; Meer, 1994). And over the years, especially in recent times, unprecedented economic, environmental, social, and political challenges have left the global economy volatile resulting in the adoption of neoliberal policies that have wreaked havoc on people’s livelihoods and increased the pool of the unemployed (UN Women, 2018). For example, the global unemployment rate, which stood at almost 200 million people in 2016, is expected to keep growing and is unlikely to fall in the medium term, as the global labour force continues to grow. Thus, vulnerable forms of employment remain pervasive, particularly among women (ILO, 2017). Thus, for women, the neoliberal model has made it even harder for them to have better quality and better paid jobs and to address inequality in an unpaid care work. Therefore, the UN Women (2018) observes that 75 percent of women in developing regions are in the informal economy, where they are less likely to have employment contracts, legal rights or social protection, and often do not earn enough to escape poverty. The analysis of women’s involvement in. the sale of mobile phone recharge cards business, the focus of this study, is situated within the feminist perspective of poverty analysis. 216 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Poverty Alleviation According to the Asian Development Bank (ADB), ICT has become an indispensable tool in the fight against world poverty, as it provides developing nations with an unprecedented opportunity to meet vital development goals (ADB, 1998). This is due to ICT’s capability to enhance a wide range of development applications - ranging from electronic commerce to access to financial markets; from generating employment to providing opportunities for investment to small and medium-sized enterprises; from improved agricultural and manufacturing productivity to the empowerment of all sections of society; from long-distance education to telemedicine, and from environmental management and monitoring to prevention and management of disasters (United Nations, 2002). For the poor, ICT helps to enhance their livelihood opportunities by increasing their access to critical information. Scholars have observed that apart from material deprivation, which characterises poverty, a major problem of the poor is their lack of access to critical information on the basic resources that is vital to their lives and livelihoods. Such information includes information about market prices for their goods, about health, about the structure and services of public institutions, and about their rights. They lack political visibility and voice in the institutions and power relations that shape their lives. They similarly lack access to knowledge, education and skills development that could improve their livelihoods. They also lack access to markets and institutions, both governmental and societal, that could provide them with the needed resources and services, as well as lack access to, and information about income-earning opportunities (Marker, McNamara and Wallace, 2002). From this vein, Bowora and Chazovachii (2010) observe that the benefits obtained from ICTs by the urban poor in Zimbabwe include information exchange, microcredits, direct employment, training and education, and access to health and government services. Similarly, through ICT, rural farmers get the required information on weather, seedling, technology, market locations, prices, pest control, etc., which aid them in decision-making that invariably result in higher yields, competitive pricing and higher profits. Also, through ICT, farmers can participate in advocacy and cooperative activities (Singh & Gupta, 2016; GODAN, 2016). Idongesit Eshiet Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 217 For the informal business operators, ICT has led to an improvement in their activities through effective communication. Debt tracing and collection (a hallmark of informal business activities, as such business is usually operated on credit basis) have been made easier through the use of the mobile phone. Creditors no longer have to visit their debtors physically to trace and recover their money. Similarly, small and medium scale entrepreneurs no longer have to travel to suppliers and clients to receive and deliver goods. Through the mobile phone and the social media, they can buy and sell goods without physical movement. ICT similarly provides small and medium scale entrepreneurs with opportunities to advertise their businesses. Through the use of social media, they are able to freely advertise their business, attract more clients, negotiate business, and seal up business deals with clients (Bowora & Chazovachii, 2010). Apart from enhancing old livelihoods as shown above, ICT has also created new forms of livelihoods. New livelihoods enabled by ICT include web-based businesses and sales of mobile phone accessories. Greenberg (2005) observes that the income improvements from such businesses can range from a few percent to very substantial amount depending on specific situations. Sofowora’s (2009) empirical study in Osun State, Nigeria, affirms Greenberg’s (2005) observation, as he found that computer business centres, telephone services, and the sale of recharge cards provided jobs for unemployed youths who made an average daily profit of between five hundred and three thousand naira. The benefits of ICT are however, differentially accessed by women and men, as ICT is not gender-neutral. Like any other technology, ICTs are socially- constructed, and so impact men and women differently (Hafkin & Odame, 2002; Mitter, 1995). Thus, globally, there are substantial differences between women and men’s access to and benefits from ICT. Global patterns of inequality between women and men as reflected in women’s political participation and their representation in decision-making structures; differences in women’s and men’s “economic opportunities, access to resources, and division of labour within the economy; women’s over representation among the poor; their higher levels of illiteracy; the persistence of stereotypical attitudes about women’s roles and of discriminatory laws and practices; are among the factors that also shape women’s capacity to access and use ICT (United Nations, 2002). 218 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet Thus, Dixit and Gupta (2010) observe that in developing countries, women face difficulties in using ICTs, as they tend to be poorer, face greater social constraints, and are less likely to be educated or literate than men. Moreover, they are likely to use ICTs in different ways, and have different information requirements than men. Women are also less likely to be able to pay for access to ICTs, either because of an absolute lack of funds or because they lack control of household expenditure. Constraints on women’s time or their movement outside of the home can also reduce their ability to access ICTs (Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development, 2017). Despite this gendered nature of ICT, it has also been observed that when there is an enabling environment, ICT can provide diverse avenues for women’s social, political and economic empowerment. For example, women’s economic livelihoods can be uplifted through expanding access to local and international markets for female entrepreneurs and through increased access to jobs, education and training, and entrepreneurial opportunities. Similarly, women have taken advantage of the increased flexibility in employment conditions created by ICT to combine their traditional caring roles with professional roles. They have also increased their access to health, nutrition, education and other human development opportunities, such as political participation, through ICT- mediated delivery channels. Women have also made extensive use of ICT services to mobilise for women’s empowerment and societal well-being (United Nations, 2002). Elijah and Ogunlade (2006) also observe that women’s access to ICT-based economic and educational activities improves their socio- economic status and strengthens the family. Thus, ICT has enhanced women’s livelihood, despite its gendered nature. Methods The study utilised the in-depth interview method (IDI) to gather qualitative data. A sample size of twenty (20) women who were engaged solely in the sale of mobile phone recharge cards (either as a retailer or bulk seller) was randomly drawn from 6 purposely selected communities (Akoka, Abule-Oja, Bariga, Magodo, Omole, and Ketu), spanning four (4) Local Government Areas in the Lagos metropolis. This was done in order to allow for convenience of sampling. Seventeen (17) respondents engaged in retail sales with sales point on the streets, under umbrella tents, were randomly selected from the six (6) communities. Three of the respondents involved in bulk sales were also included in the study through snowball sampling technique, being referrals from three (3) of the retail sellers, as their source of supplies. Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 219 Idongesit Eshiet Not less than three (3) respondents were interviewed from each of the six (6) selected communities. A structured interview guide comprising of relevant questions that will unravel the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents and spouses, business, activities and the impact of income earned on enhancing their livelihoods was used to gather the data. Field work was conducted in October, 2014. Results Responses were recorded and the recordings transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were subjected to various readings and significant statements that are in line with the study objectives were highlighted, then coded and labelled. Result of the analysed data is as presented below. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Table 1 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. It reveals that fourteen of the respondents are young and middle aged women. Twelve were married, while six were single. All the respondents were literate. Eight of the married/ever married respondents had children. A majority of them lived in mini flat and flat apartments. Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents Respondents Age Marital Status Educational Level No. of Children Type of Accommodation Respondent 1 26 Single Tertiary 0 Room & Parlour Respondent 2 35 Married Secondary 3 Mini Flat Respondent 3 32 Married Primary 2 A Room Respondent 4 54 Married Tertiary 3 3 Bedroom Flat Respondent 5 41 Divorced Tertiary 1 Mini Flat Respondent 6 29 Married Secondary 1 Room & Parlour Respondent 7 34 Married Secondary 2 2 Bedroom Flat 220 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet Respondent 8 23 Single Secondary 0 Mini Flat Respondent 9 47 Married Tertiary 5 4 Bedroom Flat Respondent 10 35 Married Secondary 3 2 Bedroom Flat Respondent 11 31 Married Primary 2 Mini Flat Respondent 12 27 Single Tertiary 0 2 Bedroom Flat Respondent 13 30 Single Secondary 0 A Room Respondent 14 40 Married Primary 5 Room & Parlour Respondent 15 28 Single Tertiary 0 Room & Parlour Respondent 16 43 Married Secondary 2 2 Bedroom Flat Respondent 17 29 Single Tertiary 1 3 Bedroom Flat Respondent 18 33 Married Tertiary 0 Mini Flat Respondent 19 47 Widowed Tertiary 4 4 Bedroom Flat Respondent 20 31 Married Secondary 1 2 Bedroom Flat Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents’ Husbands Table 2: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents’ husbands Respondents Husband’s Age Husband's Education Husband's Occupation Husband's Income Respondent 2 40 Tertiary Security Guard 1430, 000 Respondent 3 Don’t know Primary Commercial Bus Driver Don’t know Respondent 4 60 Tertiary Retired Civil Servant 14100, 000 Respondent 6 35 Tertiary Teacher 1440, 000 Respondent 7 Don’t know Secondary Commercial Bus Driver Don’t know Respondent 9 50 Tertiary Trader 1490, 000 Respondent 10 39 Tertiary Mechanic Don’t know Respondent 11 35 Secondary Commercial Bus Driver Don’t know Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 221 Idongesit Eshiet Respondent 14 Don’t know Primary Bricklayer Don’t know Respondent 16 Don’t know Secondary Trader 1450, 000 Respondent 18 40 Secondary “Tailor Don’t know Respondent 20 38 Tertiary Pastor 1470, 000 Table 2 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents’ husbands. The table reveals that respondents’ husbands were middle aged men, literate and employed. However, half of the married respondents had no idea of how much income their husbands earned monthly. This reveals the unequal gender power relations in the households, in which women are subordinate to men and so may not have access to certain vital household information, such as the income of husbands. Business Activities of Respondents Table 3: Business activities of respondents Respondents Age of Business Start-up Capital Business Capital at Time of study Daily/weekly Savings Total Savings at Time of Study Respondent 1 5 143,500 1470, 000 14500 1418, 000 Respondent 2 10 1425, 000 14100,000 142,000 1450, 000 Respondent 3 3 145,000 1430, 000 14600 1410, 000 Respondent 4 1 1410,000 1450, 000 14500 1412, 000 Respondent 5 5 N100, 000 14500, 000 146,000 14160,000 Respondent 6 6 143,000 1410, 000 14500 1420, 000 Respondent 7 2 145,000 N15, 000 14500 148,000 Respondent 8 1 143,000 1410, 000 14500 1410, 000 Respondent 9 3 1450, 000 14150, 000 145,000 1450, 000 Respondent 10 1 1410, 000 1420, 000 143,000 1410, 000 Respondent 11 4 147,000 1450, 000 142,000 1430, 000 Respondent 12 1 145,000 146,000 N7.00 1410, 000 Respondent 13 5 1420. 000 1480. 000 14700 1450. 000 Respondent 14 10 1420, 000 1430, 000 14500 1450, 000 222 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet Respondent 15 1 145, 000 N10,000 14500 1420, 000 Respondent 16 6 1420. 000 N35.OOO 14500 N35. 000 Respondent 17 2 1420, 000 14200, 000 146,000 141, 000 Respondent 18 3 N20, 000 N80, 000 14500 1450, 000 Respondent 19 2 145,000 1430, 000 142,000 1430, 000 Respondent 20 1 143,000 1425,000 143,000 148, 000 The business activities of the respondents as depicted in Table 3 shows that the respondents had engaged in the business for between one and ten years, started business with low start-up capital but experienced high growth rate of business capital. This can be attributed to the rigorous savings regime of the respondents. Findings similarly reveal that the respondents made an average daily sale of between N3,000 and N4,500 with a daily profit of about Nl, 000 (for the retail sellers) and for bulk sales, between N20,000 and N40,000 with a daily profit of between N4,500 and N8,000, as shown by some of the excerpts below: Respondent 1 I make between N7,500 and N8,000 daily sales. From the sale of these cards, I make close to N900 or N1,000 gain every day. Respondent 2 I make sales of N20,000 daily. I am into wholesales because it pays more than those who sell in retail prices. I make a profit of about N4,500 or more every day. Respondent 4 I make close to N4,000 sales every day. For the profit, I make like N1,000 Naira or so daily. Respondent 6 I sell like N6,000 daily. For profit I make like N800 or N900 daily. Impact of Income on Respondents’ Livelihoods The result of the study shows that the respondents’ livelihoods have been impacted positively as a result of their involvement in the business. A majority Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 223 Idongesit Eshiet admitted that their involvement in the business has empowered them financially to provide for their personal and households’ needs as revealed by some of the excerpts below: Respondent 1 I have assisted my younger ones in paying their school fees. I have also assisted my mother in paying her dues for her Delta State Association in Lagos. I do this every month with N5,000. I assist my mother in buying food for the house. Respondent 2 Definitely, it has made me solve some family problems majorly. I assist my husband too in the family. Before my husband joined this security work, he had no job for about 3 years. All through the period, he was always in church. It was even me that helped him to get the job he is doing now through one of my customers. So, I helped in family matters. Respondent 3 It has helped me to solve some financial problems. I am into everyday contribution here. Myself and some market women here. I have used the money to buy clothes for my children, even to pay for house rent at a point when I had issues with my husband that he left me and my children for close to 2 years. I own all the house utensils. Anything you can think of — pot, spoons, plates, and others. I also bought a motorcycle that I use for commercial purpose. But that is being handled by my husband. However, a few of the respondents said their involvement in the business has not impacted their livelihoods as revealed by some of the excerpts below: Respondent 4 I can’t say because the profit is small. Respondent 7 It has not fully. I still depend on my husband in assisting me to get something for myself and the home. 224 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet Respondent 10 It has not helped in any way. If it has, I wouldn’t be collecting money from my husband. I just started the business and I want it to grow. Involvement in the business has not only empowered women financially, but has also enhanced their self-esteem as revealed by some of these excerpts: Respondent 3 It has made me to get myself involved in something. It has also made me financially empowered. At times, I don’t wait for my husband to do some things, I do them myself. This makes me feel good. Respondent 8 Doing this business has made me independent and has made me to be resourceful. Respondent 10 I have what I do every day. It is good because if people are going to work every day, I also will leave home with them. Business Challenges Faced by Respondents Although the business has empowered women financially, resulting in enhanced livelihoods, the business is not without its challenges. Finding shows that respondents are faced with a recurrent problem of making sales on credit to friends and relations. This, according to respondents affects their business capital, hence their inability to purchase more stock for sales as buttressed by some of these excerpts: Respondent 3 Challenges are numerous in this business The major challenge is that my husband’s friends buy on credit from me a lot and this is a major problem for my business capital. Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 225 Idongesit Eshiet Respondent 5 1 face the problems of customers who don’t buy and pay immediately. The long relationship I have developed has made some of them to buy on credit and not pay for long. Another major challenge faced by respondents is the constant harassment they receive from government’s officials who confiscate their properties (chairs, tables and umbrellas) and demand bribes from them. Respondent 1 The KAI (government officials) people used to disturb us very well here. When they come they might take my table and chair. I will have to pay some money as bribe so as for them to release them. Respondent 6 Another big challenge is the disturbance of KAI who run after us and seize our market. Respondent 16 My challenge is the pressure government officials give us. For example, KAI, those people that wear green. They disturb a lot. They run after us. Most times, I bribe them. Another challenge identified by respondents is insufficient capital to invest in the business in order to make meaningful profit. Respondents complained of the low profit margin as determined by service providers’ pricing. Thus, to make meaningful profit, high volume of sales is required and this requires high investment capital in order to stock assorted cards in different monetary denominations from diverse service providers to avoid the loss of potential sales. Respondent 1 How I wish I had enough money. I will go into full time card production with all these network providers. 226 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet Respondent 6 I face some problems like limited fund to expand my business. Respondent 7 My major problem is fund to expand my business. Respondent 8 My major challenge is fund for expansion so as to get more customers. The more the customers, the more the sales, and the more the profit. Another challenge respondents complained of, is the encroachment of service providers and banks into the business through the ‘quick top up’ recharge scheme. Respondents were quite apprehensive about this. This has resulted in a reduction in sales. This was particularly noticed by a respondent who has been doing the business for a long time (about ten years). Respondent 2 When banks did not sell credit, I used to sell well well, but now they have taken our customers. Respondent 8 Banks should leave recharge cards for us so that we can have little thing doing. Respondent 14 If bank did not sell card it would be good for us. My old customers now tell me they buy their credits from bank. Discussion of Findings The ease of entrance into the sale of recharge card business, due to the low investment capital required for start-up, has made it an employment option for women who usually do not have much capital to start-up businesses. The study shows that with as low as N3, 500, respondents were able to start-up the business. Similarly, the ease of doing the business without much encumbrance Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 227 Idongesit Eshiet has made it attractive to the respondents. Renting a shop as a point of sales, for instance, is not required. All the respondents engaged in retail sales, did so without renting a shop. This takes off the burden of paying shop rents and therefore enables the respondents to plough back their profit into the business. Similarly, the products could also be moved about easily, thus, enabling the making of sales online from anywhere and at any time. The respondents admitted that this has benefited them, enabling them to operate flexible working hours in order to take care of their domestic responsibilities. This result supports the United Nations’ (2002) assertion that women have taken advantage of the increased flexibility in employment conditions created by ICT to combine their traditional caring roles with professional roles. The finding also shows that the respondents have been empowered financially as a result of being involved in the business. This result supports Greenberg’s (2005) observation that income improvements from the new form of livelihoods created by ICT such as the sale of mobile phone accessories ranges from a few percent to very substantial amount. The income earned has enhanced the respondents’ livelihoods both as individuals and as households. The respondents are able to contribute to their children’s school fees, buy foodstuff, pay house rents and other household’s necessities, as well as provide for their personal needs such as clothing, school fees, etc. This result buttresses the United Nations’ (2002) observation that women’s economic livelihoods can be uplifted by expanding their access to ICT. Similarly, the finding shows that some respondents’ self-esteem has been enhanced as a result of their involvement in the business. Self-esteem refers to an individual’s sense of self-worth or value. And an individual’s perceived or experienced reality affects his/her self-esteem (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991). Some respondents felt good because of their involvement in the business. The enhanced livelihoods of the respondents due to their involvement in the business notwithstanding, the opportunity offered the respondents for income generation through sale of recharge cards is mere palliative when assessed against the backdrop of their educational attainment. A majority of the respondents have tertiary institution’s qualifications, thus making the sale of recharge cards under an umbrella tent by the road side a work that is below their skillset and capability. Thus, relatively, the business has not alleviated respondents’ poverty, except for those engaged in bulk sales. This observation is in line with the National Bureau of Statistics (2017) categorisation of employment. Persons who are engaged in low skilled work not commensurate with their skills and qualifications are regarded as underemployed (a state that 228 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet is quite close to being unemployed — a major cause of poverty). This finding similarly affirms Eshiet's (2007) observation that the informal sector work (where sale of recharge cards belongs) offers only a slight relief to women from grinding poverty. It also supports UN Women’s (2018) observation that women workers in the informal economy often do not earn enough to escape poverty. Finding also reveals that the respondents are faced with constant harassment from government’s officials who arrest and confiscate their goods and trading accessories for violating the state laws on street trading. This finding similarly affirms Eshiet’s (2007) observation that the urban informal labour sector in Africa is characterised by hostile regulatory and policy environment. It also supports the UN Women’s (2018) observation that women’s work in the informal sector in developing countries is characterised by stringent working conditions and lack of social protection. Conclusion Information and communication Technology (ICT) has permeated all facets of human existence in today’s world. The usage of one of such ICT devices, the mobile phone, has given rise to income generating opportunities through support services. The sale of recharge cards is one of such opportunities, whose employment option has been embraced by women residing in urban centres. The business requires low start-up capital and so quite suitable for women, who often times do not have huge investment capital. Their involvement in the business has empowered women financially, resulting in enhanced livelihoods for them and their households. However, the sale of recharge cards has only offered respondents palliatives when assessed against the backdrop of their educational qualifications. Their Involvement in the business is below their skill set and so renders them underemployed — a state that is quite close to unemployment, which is a major cause of poverty. Recommendations A major challenge of the respondents as revealed by the findings is low investment capital and drop in sales, due to the involvement of service providers and banks in the sales of data credit. In view of these, the study makes the following recommendations: • Women recharge card sellers should organise themselves into an association as a platform for accessing microcredit from financial institutions. Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 229 Idongesit Eshiet • With increased investment capital, women street card sellers should rent shops in order to avoid violating municipal laws on street trading. • Service providers and banks should concentrate on their core business competencies and discontinue from selling data directly to subscribers. • The Nigerian Communication Commission (NCC) should sensitise service providers on the need to provide indirect employment opportunities for citizens through their operations. Therefore, they should desist from performing functions that would otherwise provide such indirect employment opportunities. References Alkire. S & Santos, M. E. (2010). Global Multidimensional Poverty. Oxford: Poverty and Human Development Initiative, Department of International Development, University of Oxford. Asian Development Bank (1998). Toward E-Development in Asia and the Pacific: A Strategic Approach to Information and Communication Technology. Mandaluyong, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. Blascovich, J. & Tomaka, J. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitude, 1: 115-160. Bowora, J. & Chazovachii, B. (2010). The Role of Information and Communication Technologies in Poverty Reduction in Zimbabwe: An analysis of the Urban Poor in Harare. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance. 1 Quarter 111:1-13. Chen, S. & Ravallion, M. (2008). The Developing World is Poorer than we Thought, but no Less Successful in the Fight against Poverty. Washington: Development Research Group, World Bank. Dixit, J. B. & Gupta, S. (2010). Excel with Information and Communications Technology. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications Ltd. Elijah, O. A. & I. Ogunlade (2006). Analysis of the uses of Information and Communication Technology for Gender Empowerment and Sustainable Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT, 2(3): 45-69. Eshiet, I. (2007) Urbanization, Gender and the Informal Labour Sector in Africa. Global South, SEPHIS e-magazine January, 3(2):29-33. Amsterdam, Netherlands: International Institute of Social History. 230 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (2017). Women’s Pathways to the Digital Sector: Stories of Opportunities and Challenges. Hambourg, Germany: Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development Ghosh, J. (1998). Assessing Poverty Alleviation Strategies for their Impact on Poor Women: A Study with Special Reference to India. Switzerland: UNIRSD. Global Open Data for Agriculture and Nutrition (GODAN) (2016). Esoko Provides Technical Solution to collect and share Market Prices via SMS. Accessed on April 20, 2018 from http://www.godan.info/blog- posts/esoko-provides-tech-solution-collect-and-share-market-prices- sms. Gomick, J. C. & Natascia, B. (2017). Gender and Poverty in Brady, D. Burton, L. M. (eds). The Oxford Handbook of the Social Science of Poverty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Greenberg, A. (2005). ICTs for Poverty Alleviation: Basic and Enabling Sector. Stockholm: ICT for Development Secretariat, Department for Infrastructure and Economic Cooperation, SID A. Hafkin, S. & Odame, H. H. (2002). Gender, ICT and Agriculture. A Situational Analysis for the 5th Consultative Expert Meeting of CTA’s ICT Observatory meeting on Gender and Agriculture in the Information Society. Accessed on April 12, 2018 from http://www.agricta.org/observatory2002/documents.htm. International Labour Organization (2017). World Employment Social Outlook. Geneva: ILO Internet World Stats. (2017). The Digital Divide, ICT and Broadband Internet. Retrieved from http://www.intemetworldstats.com/linkslO.htm. JUMIA (2017). African Mobile Trends 2016. Retrieved from https://blog.jumia.com.ng/jumia-unveils-third-white-paper-nigerian- mobile-trends-2017/. Marker, P. McNamara, K. & Wallace, L. (2002). The Significance of Information and Communication Technologies for Reducing Poverty. London: DFID. Meer, F. (1994) (Ed). Poverty in the 1990s: The response of urban women.Paris: UNESCO. Mitter, S. (1995). Women Encounter Technology: Changing Patterns of Employment in the Third World. London/New York: Routledge with UNU/INTECH. http://www.godan.info/blog- http://www.godan.info/blog- http://www.agricta.org/observatory2002/documents.htm http://www.intemetworldstats.com/linkslO.htm https://blog.jumia.com.ng/jumia-unveils-third-white-paper-nigerian-mobile-trends-2017/ https://blog.jumia.com.ng/jumia-unveils-third-white-paper-nigerian-mobile-trends-2017/ Information and Communication Technology and Poverty Alleviation... | 231 Idongesit Eshiet Moghadam, V. M. (2005). The Feminization of Poverty and Women’s Human. Paris: UNESCO. National Bureau of Statistics (2017). Labour Force Statistics. Vol. 1: Unemployment and Underemployment report (QI -Q3 2017) December. Accessed April 21, 2018 from nigerianstat. gov. ng/ do wnload/426. National Bureau of Statistics (2016). Nigerian Telecommunications (Services) Sector Report Q2 2016. Retrieved from www.ncc.gov.ng/stakeholder/statistics-reports/subscriber-data on September 2, 2017. Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (2018). Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 2018: The Most Detailed Picture To Date of the World’s Poorest People. Oxford: Department of International Development, University of Oxford. Singh, N. & Gupta, N. (2016). ICT Based Decision Support Systems for Integrated Pest Management in India: A Review. Agricultural Reviews 37(4):309-316. Sofowora, O. (2009). The Potential of Using ICT for Poverty and Economic Empowerment in Osun State, Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Development Using Information and Communication Technology, 5(3): 131-140. Statista, (2017). Number of Mobile Phone Users, Worldwide from 2013 to 2019 (in Billions). Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/274774/forecast-of-mobile-phone- users-worldwide/. Techterms (2015). ICT Definition. Retrieved from http:// searchcio.techtarget. com/definition/ICT-information-and- communications-technology-or-technologies. UN Women (2018). Turning Promises into Action: Gender Equality in 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. New York: United Nations Women. United Nations (2002). Information and Communication Technologies and their Impact on and use as an Instrument for the Advancement and Empowerment of Women. New York: Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), International Telecommunication Union (ITU) & UN ICT Task Force Secretariat. Accessed April 5, 2018 from http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/ict2002/reports/EGMFinal R eport.pdf. http://www.ncc.gov.ng/stakeholder/statistics-reports/subscriber-data https://www.statista.com/statistics/274774/forecast-of-mobile-phone-users-worldwide/ https://www.statista.com/statistics/274774/forecast-of-mobile-phone-users-worldwide/ http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/ict2002/reports/EGMFinalR http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/ict2002/reports/EGMFinalR 232 | Sociology and the Crisis of National Development Idongesit Eshiet Walby, S. (1990).Theorizing Patriarchy. Blackwell Publishers Ltd: Oxford and Cambridge. World Bank (2018). Piecing Together the Poverty Puzzle: Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2018. Washington DC, USA: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/the World Bank. World Bank (2016). Poverty and Shared Prosperity: Taking on Inequality. Washington: International Bank for Reconstruction.