i THE INFLUENCE OF PSYCHO-SOCIAL VARIABLES ON PERCEPTION OF AGEING AMONG TEACHERS IN ANAMBRA AND AKWA-IBOM STATES, NIGERIA BY UDEAJA, FLORENCE OGONNA B. Ed (SOCIAL STUDIES), UNIVERSITY OF ADO-EKITI (2005) M. Ed (EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY), UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS (2012) A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS. IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D.) IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS DECEMBER, 2017 ii iii iv v DEDICATION TO God Almighty, the giver of wisdom and knowledge, my good Shepherd and my Rock. ALSO To my children, Onyinye, Obumneme, Chukwunonso and Onyedikachukwu who sacrificed so much for me to achieve my dream. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am eternally grateful to God for the strength, good health and favours granted unto me all through the period of my study. To Him be all glory, honour, adoration and thanksgiving now and forever. I deeply appreciate my hard working, ebullient, dependable supervisors, my mentors and academicians of inestimable values, Prof. Ngozi Osarenren and Dr. M.B. Aletan for your contributions in various dimensions to the successful completion of this work. I appreciate your constructive criticism, your unparallel support, encouragement, your kindness and motivation. You remain the best I can ever ask for. I pray God to bless you abundantly. I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to all the lecturers in the Department of Educational Foundations for their invaluable contributions since this work started. I would like to start from the Head of Department, Prof. Ngozi Osarenren for her unconditional love, sincerity of heart and motherly love. Many thanks to Prof. G. C. Ilogu, Prof. (Mrs) Mopelola Omoegun, Prof. (Mrs) A. M. Olusakin, Prof. M. B. Ubangha (immediate past PG Coordinator), Associate Professor I.P. Nwadinigwe, Dr. (Mrs) I. I. Abe, Dr. Canice Okoli, Dr. (Mrs) Bola Makinde, Dr. O. M. Alade, Dr. M. B. Aletan, Dr. Soji Oni, Dr. (Mrs) Stella Anyama, Dr. S. O. Adeniyi (the PG Coordinator), Dr. Patrick Akinsanya, Dr. (Mrs) O. O. Longe, Dr. (Mrs) O. O. Akanni, Dr. (Mrs) B. Ahimie and Dr. (Mrs) P.N. Emeri. I am very grateful to you all. I sincerely appreciate members of Academic Programme Committee (APC) for their constructive criticisms. I sincerely thank the chairman of the APC, Professor Kayode Amund and the Vice-Chairman, Professor (Mrs) O. A. Obashoro-John. Many thanks to Sub-Dean of the school of Post graduate studies, Dr. Khalid Adekoya. I am very grateful to my lead vii reviewers, Professor Godwin Azenabor of the Department of Philosophy and Professor Yemi Oke of the Department of Jurisprudence & International Law. I am highly indebted to all the teachers and Principals of the various schools in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom States that I used as my sample for this study. It was a wonderful experience travelling the length and breadth of the states. My experience with them reminded me about the virtues of humility and kindness. They showed me love and assistance even beyond my expectation. I will not fail to mention the Vice Principal of West Itam Secondary School and now in Government Model Girls Secondary School, Ikot Ekang, Abak, Mr Umoren Okon Usoro. He assisted me beyond my expectation when I entered Uyo for the first time as a stranger. I appreciate his kindness and support. I would like to express my gratitude to these senior colleagues for their support and encouragement, Dr. Sola Olaosebikan, Dr. Olaotan Kuku, Dr. Victor Igbinosa, Dr. Philo Okoye and Dr. Angela Ogbo. I would like to thank all my class mates, Ph.D. class of 2014 session for their love and support throughout the period of this study, Dr. Oluseyi Odewale, Mr. John Oparaduru (my class governor), Mr. Sunday Adedigba, Mr. Stephen Akinsola, Mrs Mariam Gbadamosi, Mrs Josephine Okoduwa, Mrs Patricia Ehiremhen, Mrs Dorathy Chukwudi, Mr Uzor Ugoladi and Mrs Chinyere Seidu. Special thanks go to all the administrative staff of the Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Lagos, Nigeria, Mrs Olubukola Afolabi, Mrs. Dorcas Olagunju, Mrs Adejoke Solarin and Mrs Adeyemi Elijah. I also appreciate my data analyst, Mr. Asegbe Emmanuel, for good job, encouragement and prayers. I am eternally grateful to my parents Ogbuefi Jeremiah Mmadubugwu Onuchukwu and Mrs Benedeth Afuluenu Onuchukwu who sowed the seed of knowledge that germinated and grew viii into this big tree in my life. I am grateful for their understanding, unwavering support, encouragement and prayers. Many thanks to my beloved brothers and sisters, Godson, Nnonye Aneto, Ethel Orizu, Raymond, Obinna, Kenechukwu and Somadina for all their support, love, care, encouragement and prayers. And my wives, Uchenna and Oluchi I appreciate all their concern and care. They will all live to reap the fruits of their labour. I say a big thank you to these wonderful relations, friends and colleagues for their encouragement and support, Mrs. Rita Okafor, Mrs. Chinwe Ekenta, Mrs. Ngozi Nzeribe, Mrs. Amaechi R. N, Mrs. Nneka Udokwu, Mr. Bayo Olaosebikan, Chief Ike Okoli, Mr. Goddy Okpala, Mrs. Egburuonu Florence, Mrs. Tina Chuks, Mrs. Oloyode J., Mrs. Emekwue Pauline, and all NTI facilitators of Ojo study centre. I sincerely appreciate my ever supportive husband, Mr. Eugene Okwuchukwu Udeaja, for allowing me to fulfil this purpose. He is qualified to win the most supportive husband award. I cannot quantify your support with words. I am very grateful. He will enjoy the fruits of his labour. My profound gratitude goes to my ever supportive, caring, motivational and understanding children, Onyinye, Obumneme, Chukwunonso and Onyedikachukwu. I pray the protective hand of God to continually be upon you. They all will live to fulfil their divine assignment on planet earth. To my hard working and caring son-in-law, Ikemefuna Nwangwu Snr. I appreciate all his effort and support towards the success of this study. He will not miss his place in destiny. Finally, this acknowledgement will not be complete without mentioning my beloved, sweet and God given grand-children, Leroy Ikemefuna Jnr. and Olivia Adaeze for keeping me awake as I did the cultural “Omugbo” and this research work. They were really sources of joy and motivation as I kept awake doing the two things at the same time. I love them deeply. Udeaja, Florence Ogonna. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES Title Page i Approval ii Certification iii Author’s Statement iv Dedication v Acknowledgements vi Table of Contents ix List of Tables xii List of Figures xiv List of Appendices xv Abstract xvi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the Study 1 1.1 Statement of the Research Problem 8 1.2 Theoretical Framework 9 1.3 Purpose of the Study 14 1.4 Research Questions 14 1.5 Research Hypotheses 15 1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study 16 1.7 Significance of the Study 17 1.8 Operational Definition of Terms 18 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Concept of Ageing 20 x 2.2 Concept of Perception 22 2.3 Perception of Ageing among Men and Women 23 2.4 Ageing stereotypes and perception of the ageing 30 2.5 Socio-economic Status the Ageing 33 2.6 Perception of Ageing and Societal Roles 37 2.7 Perception of ageing and Emotional Adjustment 42 2.8 Ageing on Individual Self-esteem 45 2.9 Perception of Ageing and Health Status 50 2.10 Anxiety and Ageing 54 2.11 Summary of Reviewed Literature 58 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design 60 3.2 Area of Study 60 3.3 Population of the Study 62 3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures 63 3.5 Instrumentation 64 3.6 Pilot study 67 3.7 Procedure for data collection 68 3.8 Appointment and training of research assistant 68 3.9 Administration of instruments 69 3.10 Method of data analysis 69 CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSES OF DATA AND PRESENTATION 4.1 Testing of Hypothesis One 70 xi 4.2 Testing of Hypothesis Two 75 4.3 Testing of Hypothesis Three 76 4.4 Testing of Hypothesis Four 79 4.5 Testing of Hypothesis Five 81 4.6 Testing of Hypothesis Six 82 4.7 Testing of Hypothesis Seven 84 4.8 Discussion of Findings 89 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Summary of Findings 98 5.2 Contributions to knowledge 99 5.3 Recommendations 99 5.4 Suggestions for Further Research 101 5.5 Conclusion 102 References 103 Appendix 117 xii LIST OF TABLES TABLES PAGES Table 1: Test- Retest Reliability coefficient of the Instrument (N=80) 68 Table 2: Descriptive statistics of perception of ageing among teachers according to state and gender 70 Table 3: Two-way Analysis of variance for differential perception of ageing 71 among teachers by state and gender Table 4: Pairwise Comparison for the Difference in Perception of Ageing due 72 to State Table 5. Descriptive Statistics of Ageing Stereotypes in Anambra and 75 Akwa Ibom States Table 6. Independent Samples Test for Difference due to State of Origin in 75 Ageing Stereotypes among Teachers. Table 7. Descriptive Statistics of Ageing Stereotype, Socioeconomic 76 Status and Societal Roles on Perception of Ageing among Teachers in Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Table 8. Multiple Regression for the Contribution of Ageing Stereotype, 77 Socio-economic Status and Societal Roles to the Prediction of Ageing Perception in Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Table 9. Composite Relationship of Societal Roles, Ageing Stereotypes 77 and Socio-Economic Status with Perception of Ageing Table 10. ANOVA for the Influence of Societal Roles, Ageing Stereotype and 77 Socio-Economic Status on Ageing Perception Table 11. Descriptive Statistics of Teachers on Perception of Ageing and 80 Emotional Adjustment in Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Table 12. Influence of Perception of Ageing on Emotional Adjustment of 80 Teachers in Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Table 13. Descriptive Statistics of Teachers on Perception of Ageing and 81 Self-Esteem in Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Table 14. Influence of Perception of Ageing on Self-Esteem of Teachers in 81 Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Table 15. Descriptive Statistics of Teachers on Positive Perception of Ageing and 82 xiii Health Status in Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Table 16. Influence of Perception of Ageing on Health Status of Teachers in 83 Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Table 17. Descriptive Statistics of Ageing Anxiety of Teachers according to 84 State and Gender Table 18. Two-Way Analysis of Variance for Teachers Ageing Anxiety by State 85 and Gender Table 19. Pairwise Comparison for the Difference in Ageing Anxiety Due to 86 State xiv LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES PAGES Figure 1: Difference between mean scores of male and female teachers in 74 perception of ageing among teachers in Anambra and Akwa Ibom States Figure 2. Difference between mean scores of male and female 88 teachers on ageing anxiety in Anambra and Akwa Ibom States xv LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX PAGES 1. Psycho-Social Variables on Perception of Ageing Questionnaire (PSVPAQ). 64 2. Brief-Ageing Perception Questionnaire (B-APQ) by Sexton, 65 King-Kallimanis, Morgan & McGee (2014). 3. Self Esteem Scale (SES) by Rosenberg (1967). 66 4. Self-Rating Anxiety Scale by Zung (1971). 66 5. Emotional Adjustment Bank (EAB) by Aguado, Rubio, Hontangas 67 &Hernandez (2007). xvi ABSTRACT Ageing comes with some indicators including decline in functions of the organs which take its toll virtually on every aspect of wellbeing of the ageing person particularly if this important and inevitable phase of life is not prepared for. Right perception of the concept of ageing is no doubt, the very first and perhaps, most important step towards healthy ageing. Positive perception of ageing by teachers will improve the standard of most ageing teachers and also put them in the right frame of mind as they age. The present study examined the Influence of Psycho-social Variables on Perception of Ageing among Teachers in Anambra and Akwa- Ibom states. Activity, Functionalist and Psycho-social theory of personality guided the study. The sample comprised four hundred and two teachers (402) in Anambra state and five hundred and three (503) teachers in Akwa-Ibom state selected through multi-stage sampling technique. Five research instruments namely Psycho-social Variables on Perception of Ageing Questionnaire (PSVPAQ); Brief Ageing Perception Questionnaire (B-APQ); Self- esteem Scale (SES); Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SRAS) and Emotional Adjustment Bank (EAB) were used to collect data. Seven hypotheses were tested. Descriptive statistics, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Independent t-test, Multiple Regression and Pearson Product Moment Correlation were used for data analyses. The study confirmed that there was significant difference due to gender and state of origin in the perception of ageing. It was also shown that there was significant difference due to state of origin in ageing stereotypes. There was significant composite influence of societal roles, ageing stereotypes and socio-economic status on perception of ageing. Perception of ageing had significant influence on emotional adjustment. Perception of ageing significantly influenced the self-esteem of teachers. Positive perception of ageing had significant impact on the health status of teachers. Finally, the study showed that there was significant difference due to gender and state of origin in ageing anxiety. It was recommended among others that there is need for welfare as well as awareness packages for teachers to have healthy perception of ageing and adequately prepare for such. Teachers’ gratuity and pension should be paid as soon as they disengage from service to enable them move into other areas of interest. Seminars should be organized for teachers periodically on issues of ageing to prepare their mind as they advance in chronological years. Key Words: Psycho-social Variables, Ageing, Perception, Personality. 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the Study Ageing and the ageing process are aspects of human experiences which begin the moment a person is born. Each day that passes makes a person one day older. The older a person becomes the nearer the person moves to that stage of life in which everything in the person’s makeup and functions decline. Ageing is an important phase of life as it signals our gradual final exit from the planet earth. Ageing from this perspective is seen as ongoing, starting at conception and ending with death. It occupies the total life span, not merely the final stage of life. Kart and Kinney (2005) confirmed that without the knowledge and understanding of the entire life span, it may be difficult to understand the events of anyone’s life phase. In this sense, ageing is studied to learn not only about the final phase of life, but also about youth and middle years as these stages determine to a large extent how people age and their perception of ageing. According to Olajide and Ayantunji (2016) most people are frightened and not comfortable to hear that they are ageing or growing old. This is simply because it tends to suggest advancement in age, decline in the function of the organs of the body, and loss of flexibility, decline in hearing, vision and lessen of muscular strength, flexibility of the skin and blood vessels, appearance of wrinkles on the skin, etc. Osunde and Obiunu (2005) asserted that all the negative indicators which show decline in the functions of the body organs due to ageing make many adults to feel uncomfortable to be associated with ageing. This feeling affects many people psychologically and socially and this is experienced through fear and anxiety over ageing and death, emotionally traumatized due to physical and psychological changes associated with ageing such as low self-esteem, reduced morbidity and self-worth, aggression, depression, among other challenges. The level at which a person is affected by 2 these challenges may depend on the person’s disposition, preparedness and perception of ageing. According to Chrism (2016) perception is a subjective, active and creative process in which we interpret what we sense by assigning meaning to sensory information through which we understand ourselves and others. Every person perceives the world and approaches life challenges and events differently. Chrism (2016) posits that the differences in perception are influenced by environmental variables which can be physical, psychological and social. Such variables as socio-economic status, family background and position in the community, educational background, culture and societal beliefs and their interpretations, health status, emotional status, position in the society, occupation, among others influence how we perceive life events. Denga in Osuji and Nweze (2014) confirmed that two people could see a thing differently but each sees a reality that is unique to him or her and that is the reality that moderates his or her behaviour. Ajala (2006) recognized that though all human societies recognize the roles of the elderly in social relations but the perception of ageing, apart from being subjected to the wave of culture change, is not the same thing in all human cultures. Traditionally, in Nigeria, the extended family system has cared for the Nigerian elderly. Okumagba (2011) found that the family still accounts for a large proportion of the support. Thus, most aged persons expect support from their relatives, friends but most especially from their children. As a result of this, the need for elderly age security from children was one of the motivations for large family size in Nigeria. However, because of the declining economy, unemployment, underemployment, inflation among others, many children are no longer in a position to provide care and support for their aged parents and relatives while the family support networks are on decline. In the same token, urbanization and westernization have also broken down the traditional sense of family responsibility. 3 However, as a result of modernization, (influence by foreign culture) there was a change in family structure in Nigeria which led to gradual disintegration of the concept of extended family system. The traditional function of the family such as care and social support of the older family members is gradually collapsing. Many old people are not responsible for their ageing, some face health challenges that have made them total burden to their family members, some have been thrown out of their homes and tagged witches or wizards. According to Okoroafor (2015), in Calabar, Cross River state, thirteen elderly persons were picked up from the street after being thrown out by their respective families, allegedly claiming that they were witches. Along with this is the economic situation of most children which makes it difficult for them to cater for their parents. And so the role of the old peoples’ home in the wave of gradual cultural shift and disintegration is very key. Old peoples’ home is a multi-residence housing facilities intended for senior citizens. Even though old peoples’ home is un-African, it is a shameful state of affair that there has arisen a need for old age homes in modern times. So in the wave of parental neglect and abandonment, the importance of old peoples’ home cannot be over emphasized. Living in this home will give them a little bit of care, sense of belonging, happiness, self-worth and help them to develop positive perception of ageing. The body changes that signal ageing may be devastating and traumatic and this creates fear and anxiety over ageing and death, thereby making anxiety a psychological variable that influence perception of ageing. According to Wolitzky-Taylor, Castriotta, Lenze, Stanley and Craske (2010) anxiety disorders are among the most common clinical problems reported among ageing persons, and their detrimental effects in late life are comparable to those of depression. Indications of ageing anxiety include worrying about declining health, physical function, social connectedness, changing physical appearance including wrinkles, receding hair lines, grey hair, declining cognitive ability and depleting financial resources (Cummings, 4 Kropf, & DeWeaver 2000). Many teachers at mid-ages are already approaching retirement age and therefore may be facing fear and anxiety over ageing. Socioeconomic status (SES) is the social standing or class of an individual or group. It is key in determining the quality of life of older people and it has been found to affect the psychological health of ageing persons (American Psychological Association, 2017). Teachers in Nigeria are not well paid which has placed them either at the middle or low socioeconomic status. Many of them find it very difficult to save out of their salaries and make meaningful investment that will sustain them when they retire. At mid-age, when coming close to the reality of disengaging from paid job, many face emotional trauma which affect not only their personal life but also their work as their level of output reduce to the detriment of the students under their care. Ageing at this situation may become a thing of worry and pain, thereby creating negative perception of ageing. Self-esteem is a generalized evaluation of the self and it can strongly influence thoughts, modes and behaviour. Low self-esteem may hold one back from succeeding at work because one does not believe in him/herself to be capable of success. By contrast, having a healthy self-esteem can help a person achieve success because such a person navigates life with positive, assertive attitude and believe he/she can accomplish stated goals. Patrick and Wemba (2014) posits that although it is crystal clear that the amount and quality of training an individual receives is a logical place to start for determining personnel quality. It is equally true that the teachers’ feeling, behaviour, attached value and the environment determine the amount of effort put in for the attainment of institutional objectives (Touama, 2014). Teaching is one of the most demanding profession and teachers who are the key players deserve every attention for continuous and improved output. Khani, Riaz and Saif (2015) posits that teachers with high self-esteem can teach the students in effective manner because it creates confidence in their ability, attitudes, commitments and values. When a teacher self- 5 esteem is affected by low or poor standard of living as evident in our society, it reduces the person’s self-worth and efficiency especially as (s)he grows old. Over the years the Nigerian teacher has been struggling to meet up with basic necessities of life due to poor remuneration such that the noble profession no longer even attract first class graduates from our universities. Many teachers have this attitude that they are poorly paid and so they find it difficult to save or make some investments that will sustain them when they retire from paid job. This has made ageing a thing of worry to the extent that some falsify their age to enable them stay longer in the service, because of fear of disengaging and not having means of financial sustenance. Many who retired without proper financial management ended up on a low socio-economic status and this is not good for ageing persons’ physical and psychological health. According to American Psychological Association (2017) those at the lower levels of socioeconomic status are often most likely to be diagnosed with psychological disorder. Teaching is perhaps the most important profession in the society. The well-being of today’s teachers affects the well-being of society tomorrow. Unless the well-being of individual teacher is improved, standard of education and that of the educational experience of young people will suffer with far-reaching financial, economic and social consequences for the nation. Ageing which signals retirement from full-time paid employment is a defining moment that marks the beginning of a life transition for many teachers. The strength of self- perception of weakness sometimes associated with ageing is particularly important for teachers where the professional experience acquired as a result of their age (in the teaching profession) can be jeopardized or turned to redundancy or unwholesome liability as a result of unhealthy perception of ageing (Joye & Wilson, 2015). 6 The teacher who leads the students to competence by teaching both the formal and hidden curriculum is assumed to benefit the system of education tremendously as (s)he stays longer in the system, and does not have to be badly affected psychologically, mentally, socially and health-wise by their self-perception or the perception of anyone on ageing. Understanding the perception of ageing by teachers therefore, will not only guarantee a better conceptualization of this phenomenon, its intricacies, management and treatment; this knowledge can also make older teachers learn and be positively disposed to ageing for improved work output. Furthermore, ageing is a highly individualized and complex process, yet it continues to be stereotyped due to cultural and societal imposed standards. According to Dionogi (2015) stereotypes are unchallenged myths or overstated beliefs associated with a category which are wide spread, entrenched in verbal, written and visual contexts within society and in contemporary culture they are primarily negative, depicting later life as a time of ill-health, loneliness, dependency and poor physical and mental health. Stereotypes of ageing include assumptions and generalizations about how people at or over a certain age should behave, and what they are likely to experience, without regard for individual differences or unique circumstances. Examples are: old people have poor health with diminishing mental ability, unattractiveness, sexless, unhappy, have negative personality traits, lonely, behave like children, forgetful and boring, These beliefs are gradually internalized and consequently they influence individual perceptions of their own ageing. Since stereotypes are culture-specific in affecting perception of ageing, it can be argued that perception of ageing cannot also, be unconnected with the place of origin of individuals. This is because where individuals reside or come from may have huge impacts on their total way of life and expectations. To get the right perceptions of people on ageing therefore ultimately requires putting into consideration such factors as individuals’ origin or place of residence (Chow & Bae, 2011). Different cultures have different attitudes and practices around ageing 7 and death, and these cultural perspectives can have a huge impact on our experiences and perception of ageing. Just as people’s place of birth or state of origin may determine their perception of ageing due to cultural beliefs, societal values and socialization. Discrimination also exist between men and women in matters concerning education, health, employment and general societal roles making gender and state of origin a plausible related variables that may influence ageing views. According to World Health Organization (2017), gender can be understood as the complex and differing pattern of roles, responsibilities, norms, values, freedoms and limitations that defines what is thought of as “masculine” and “feminine” throughout the life course and which all play a role as determinants of ageing. Gender is a social construct which classifies biological sex of men and women. It is an acquired identity that is learned, changes over time, and varies widely within and across cultures. Every state is made up of groups and sub-groups of human settlements with peculiar and diverse culture and role categorization. In many societies men are seen as being strong, occupy position of power and authority, active, have autonomy, achievers and endure while women are seen as being passive, weak, age fast, nurturing and adaptive. These characteristics are more favourable to men than women, they form the basis of socially assigned roles, determine how people see themselves and this may go a long way to influence how they age. Thus, from research, gender seems to be a function of ageing (Schafer & Shippee, 2010; International Longevity Centre, 2014). There are many research work done on negative and positive perception of ageing, but there are limited work on psycho-social variables that influence perception of ageing. It is against this background that this study was carried out on the influence of psycho-social variables on perception of ageing among teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states. 8 1.1 Statement of the Problem The inevitability of ageing and the fear of dying have haunted human being and it has been a human dream to retard ageing and defy death. Ageing by its nature may breed anxiety which involves fear and worries about the future of the individual as a result of near or cessation in active working life, fear of death and losing loved ones. Ageing may come with either happiness over accomplishments or pain and sorrow over unfulfilled dreams, negligence and failures which may lead to aggression, depression, anxiety and in extreme case suicide. Others include dysfunctional family matters as well as psychological or behaviour disorders such as depression, hypertension, identity crisis, alcoholism, loneliness, fast ageing & ill- health occasioned at times by loss of good accommodation among others (Inaja cited in Inaja & Chima 2013). The failure of many teachers to come to terms with the reality of ageing as they advance towards retirement has brought untold hardships to many of them when they retire. Many teachers have low standard of living before and after retirement, this has brought untold hardship and suffering as a result of their inability to pay life sustaining bills. The present economic downturn in the country is becoming increasingly difficult for average Nigerian worker to make ends meet because of the inadequate wages and high inflation. Ageing teachers are worse as their entitlement are not usually paid immediately after retirement. Consequently ageing which may not have been planned for adequately in many cases is accompanied by psycho-social and financial crisis. A teacher who has put in a good number of years in the service is expected to have some level of financial comfort towards the end of the working years, but this may not be the case with many teachers. The society equally looks down on teachers when it comes to financial matters. This financial incapacitation and way the society underrates teachers have affected many of them negatively. This has created low self-esteem, reduced self-worth, depression, 9 aggression, lack of dedication to duty, low social network and other challenges. These problems have caused reduced output, especially when teachers are advancing in chronological years. This may be one of the reasons for the poor performances of many students in public secondary schools today. Ageing teachers need to use their wealth of experiences to improve learning and academic performances of students, but this can only happen if there is job satisfaction and positive perception of ageing as they look forward to retirement. Ageing, equally, may come with concomitant health problems such as physical and mental decline due to the deterioration of biological make-ups of human beings. The above mentioned life events may affect ageing teachers negatively and make them to age in pain, sadness, ill-health, broken home, among other challenges. Many works have been carried out on the effects of positive and negative perception of ageing, but there is gap in research on psycho-social variables that influence perception of ageing, therefore this study sets out to ascertain the influence of psycho-social variables on perception of ageing among teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states, Nigeria. 1.2 Theoretical Framework The following theories guided this study  Activity Theory by Havighurst, R.J. (1961)  Functionalist theory by Emile Durkhein ( 1858-1917)  Psychosocial Theory of Personality by Erick Erickson (1959) Activity Theory by Havighurst (1961) Activity theory posits that optimal ageing occurs when individuals participate in activities, pursuits and relationships. It takes the view that ageing process is delayed and quality of life enhanced when old people remain socially active. Havighurst is of the view that, the reduced 10 social involvement that characterized old age results from the withdrawal by society from the ageing person and the decrease in interaction proceeds against the desires of most ageing persons. The older person who ages optimally is the person who stays active and manages to resist the shrinking of his or her social world. He maintains the activity of middle age for as long as possible and finds substitutes for those activities he/she is forced to relinquish- substitute for work when he is forced to retire, substitute for friends or loved ones whom he loses by death. The activity theory of ageing proposes that older adults are happiest when they stay active and maintain social interactions. These activities, especially when meaningful, help the ageing to replace lost life roles after retirement and, therefore, resist the social pressures that limit an ageing person's world. This research work seeks to encourage teachers to see life as an activity. They should look inwards, discover some talents within them, develop them and use them to improve on their financial status. This will raise their socioeconomic standard, give them financial independence as they age, raise their self-esteem, level of confidence and social status. Get themselves ready to take up new jobs either private establishment or paid job when they retire from their regular job. Build their social network and maintain social activities, which will make them to be socially and economically relevant even as they age. Keeping oneself busy, maintaining social contacts, developing new interests and finding ways to change productivity and creativity even as one is ageing, are considered keys to positive perception of ageing. Functionalist Theory The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; 11 rather, each part of society is functional for the stability of the whole. Durkheim actually envisioned society as an organism, and just like within an organism, each component plays a necessary part, but none can function alone, when one experiences a crisis or fails, other parts must adapt to fill the void in some way. Within functionalist theory, the different parts of society are primarily composed of social institutions, each of which is designed to fill different needs, and which has particular consequences for the form and shape of society. According to functionalism, an institution only exists because it serves a vital role in the functioning of society. From this perspective, disorganization in the system, such as deviant behavior, leads to change because societal components must adjust to achieve stability. When one part of the system is not working or is dysfunctional, it affects all other parts and creates social problems. Teachers who face financial crisis, physical, social and psychological health challenges such as low self-esteem, emotional maladjustment, ageing stereotypes, may not function properly in their schools. The resultant effect is lack of proper teaching which breeds poor students who may not function properly in the various social institutions they will find themselves in future. Educational institution is a channel through which the right societal values is inculcated in the citizens to make them responsible members of the society and equally grow to become responsible adults who will influence other societal institutions such as the family to function well to enable members perceive ageing positively. Teachers as educated people should not allow themselves to be influenced by negative stereotypes in the society that will not help them to function and live a happy life. 12 Psychosocial Theory of Personality by Erick Erickson (1959) Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages namely:- 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 18 months) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months -3 years) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years) 4. Competence vs. Inferiority (5-12 years) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12- 18 years) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 years) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65years) 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65year and above) He assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. These crises are psychosocial in nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (social). According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in healthy personality and acquisition of basic virtues. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. The first five stages are about the child, steps to be taken to train the child to become a well-adjusted member of the society and likely an adult who will age well. While number six to eight centers on the life of the adult to become a responsible and well-adjusted individual that can lead to successful ageing and positive perception of ageing. Psycho-social stage 7- Generativity Vs Stagnation (40-64 years) During middle adulthood, people establish career, settle down within a relationship, begin their own families and develop a sense of being part of the bigger picture. They give back to the society through raising children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in 13 community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, they become stagnated and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care. Psycho-social stage 8 –Ego Integrity Versus Despair (65 year and above) The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe they have lived a happy life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals, often leading to depression and hopelessness. The theory of Erik Erickson is relevant to this study because it emphasizes that crisis occurs at each stage of development. These crises are psycho-social in nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of the society (i.e social). All the stages are relevant because the foundation for proper ageing is laid at childhood, but the last two stages are highlighted because stage seven specifically, covers the age of the sample of this research work while the last stage (8) centres on the life of the adult who adjusted or did not adjust well in stage seven and the effects on the process of ageing. When a child receives the right socialization, associates and perceives elders positively, (s)he internalizes the right virtues and societal values that will equally inform how (s)he perceives his or her own ageing process. Teachers and parents as nation builders should handle children with care and train them to adjust well at every stage of life as outlined by Erickson to avoid facing crisis that will hinder their psychological and social growth. Also to encourage them to work hard to achieve success and plan for their old age in order to avoid isolation, loneliness, depression and life of shame, pain and despair as they age. 14 1.3 Purpose of the Study The main purpose of this study was to determine the influence of psycho-social variables on perception of ageing among teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states. Specifically, the study aims to: 1. examine differences in the perception of ageing among teachers based on their gender and state of origin. 2. investigate whether state of origin/residence has any influence on ageing stereotypes among teachers. 3. establish to what extent the composite impact of societal roles, ageing stereotypes and socio-economic status influence perception of ageing among teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states. 4. ascertain the impact of perception of ageing on the emotional adjustment of teachers in the two states. 5. ascertain whether perception of ageing influence the self-esteem of teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states. 6. establish the impact of positive perception of ageing on the health status of teachers in the two states. 7. ascertain if there are differences in ageing anxiety among teachers based on their gender and state of origin. 1.4 Research Questions The following research questions guided this study:- 1. what is the difference in the perception of ageing among teachers based on their gender and state of origin? 2. what is the difference in ageing stereotypes due to state of origin/residence among teachers? 15 3. to what extent will the composite impact of societal roles, ageing stereotypes and socio-economic status influence the perception of ageing among teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states? 4. to what extent does perception of ageing influence the emotional adjustment of teachers in Akwa-Ibom and Anambra states? 5. to what extent does perception of ageing influence the self-esteem of teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states? 6. to what extent does positive perception of ageing influence the health status of teachers in Akwa-Ibom and Anambra states? 7. what is the difference in ageing anxiety among teachers based on their gender and state of origin? 1.5 Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses guided this research work:- 1. there will be no significant difference based on gender and state of origin in the perception of ageing among teachers. 2. there will be no significant difference due to state of origin in ageing stereotypes among teachers. 3. there will be no significant composite influence of societal roles, ageing stereotypes and socio-economic status on perception of ageing among teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states. 4. perception of ageing will have no significant influence on the emotional adjustment of teachers in Akwa-Ibom and Anambra states. 5. perception of ageing will not significantly influence the self-esteem of teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states. 16 6. positive perceptions of ageing will not significantly impact the health status of teachers in Akwa-Ibom and Anambra states 7. there will be no significant differences in ageing anxiety among teachers based on their gender and state of origin. 1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study The study was limited to teachers in Anambra and Akwa Ibom states, Nigeria. Teachers between ages 45-59 years from randomly selected 35 secondary schools in Anambra state and 36 secondary schools in Akwa-Ibom states were used for this study. Teachers between ages 45-59 years were used because they are within the mid-ages and retirement age and therefore may be facing retirement crisis over ageing. Also for the study sample to be within the school as retirement starts at age 60. The study investigated the influence of psycho-social variables on perception of ageing among teachers in Anambra and Akwa-Ibom states. The justification for choosing the two states was based on some cultural differences on their attitude towards ageing. Many Igbo men and women from Anambra state accept ageing based on societal status such as grand-parenthood, chieftaincy titles, leadership positions and having adult children, while this is not the case in Akwa-Ibom state where such status does not change their attitude towards ageing, rather the women despite such status according to oral interviews, see themselves as being young and can compete with the young ones in social activities. 17 1.7 Significance of the Study The results from this study would be beneficial to educational psychologists, teachers, guidance counsellors, men and women in their mid-ages, policy makers and curriculum planners. To Educational Psychologists, it would enable them to identify some of the psycho-social challenges of the ageing persons such as anxiety, low self-esteem, negative sterotypes and so make appropriate referrals to the proper professional bodies that can handle such problems to help the ageing adjust properly as they advance in chronological year. When the right therapy is offered to an emotionally traumatized ageing teacher, it will help to put him/her in the right frame of mind to offer good services in his/her job which will be visible in the performances of the students. To the teachers this study would expose them to various psycho-social variables that may affect their ageing either negatively or positively, so that they will be better equipped to face the challenges of old age. They would be armed with the relevant theories that would help them to develop the right mind set that would assist them to be responsible for their own ageing. This is because westernization is gradually affecting the traditional extended family system and communal life style where the elderly were taken care of by immediate and extended family members, but that system is eroding gradually. They should start early to plan for retirement and ageing by investing wisely. Teachers would be challenged to inculcate in their students such values as respect for the ageing, hard work, proper plan for the future, maintaining good social network, etc. as these will help them to avoid life of regrets, despair and pain as they age. The Guidance Counsellors would be exposed to some societal stereotypes which may have posed challenges to people not living out their full potentials. They will be better informed 18 and well equipped to give proper counseling and right therapies that will put such people in the right frame of mind to live their life and feel fulfilled. Such people may likely accept ageing positively. Again, this research work will be beneficial to men and women who are in their mid- ages. The mid age comes with biological changes that sprout some mental, physical and psychological challenges that affect these groups adjustment pattern. This study would expose them to some of these biological changes so that they can accept them as natural phenomena, and so develop the right frame of mind as they age. Furthermore, the result of this research work would also be beneficial to policy makers. It will guide them to map out strategies to help the expanding ageing population by giving prior and proper orientation on adjustment strategies before retirement. Government at all levels should involve private pension managers to manage the gratuity and pension of their workers. This would improve efficiency, prompt payment of teachers’ pension to reduce their suffering after retirement to enable teachers disengage from service with little or no crisis and accept ageing positively. 1.8 Operational Definition of Terms The following terms were operationally defined as used in the study.  Ageing: - In the context of this research work ageing is seen as the process of advancement in chronological years.  Anxiety:-In this study anxiety is taken as the fear and worry over advancement in chronological age  Emotional Adjustment:-In this work emotional adjustment is the survival mechanism or device by the ageing to withstand the external and internal stressors or identity crises they face in the society as a result of ageing. 19  Perception: - In this study perception means the way people think about or understand ageing and form impressions based on their understanding.  Psycho-social variables:-These are psychological and social factors that influence perception of ageing. However the areas used in this study are Anambra and Akwa- Ibom states. Such factors as stereotype, societal roles, socio-economic status, self-esteem, anxiety and emotion.  Retirement:- In this work retirement is when a person disengages from paid employment at the age of 60 years or having reached the statutory age of 35 years in service  Self-Esteem:- It is taken as the negative or positive judgment or evaluation of the ageing as a result of how they perceive themselves or how they are perceived by others.  Societal Roles: - These are the functions and positions the ageing is expected to occupy as a result of their new status such as grandparents, in-laws, etc.  Socio-economic Status: - In this study socio-economic status is how rich or poor a person is; it is determined by individual level of education and income.  State of Origin: - This is the state a person belongs to by birth. That is where his or her parents come from.  Stereotypes: - They are characteristics such as old people are always sick, they behave like children, they are not sociable, frail, boring, dull, not sexy, forgetful, unproductive, possessive, wise, loving, caring, etc, ascribed to or used to label the ageing because of their advancement in chronological age without regard for individual differences or unique circumstances. 20 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This study reviewed relevant literatures under the following sub-headings:-  Concept of ageing.  Concept of perception  Perception of ageing among men and women  Ageing stereotypes and cultural beliefs.  Perception of ageing and emotional adjustment.  Ageing and Socio-economic status.  Societal roles and perception of ageing.  Ageing on Individual self-esteem.  Anxiety and ageing.  Health status and the ageing.  Summary of related literature. 2. I Concept of Ageing Ageing is a universal, inevitable, irreversible and extremely complex, multi-factorial process that is characterized by the progressive degeneration of organs, systems and tissues. It is largely determined by genetics, and influenced by a wide range of environmental factors, such as diet, exercise, exposure to micro-organisms, pollutants and ionizing radiation; this explains why two people of the same age may differ markedly in terms of both physical appearance and physiological state (Nigam, Knight, Bhattacharya and Bayer 2012). Goswami (2013) posits that ageing is an important part of all human societies reflecting not only the biological changes that occur, but also reflecting cultural and societal conventions. Chronological ageing may also be distinguished from “social ageing” and “biological 21 ageing”. There is also a distinction between “proximal ageing” (age-based effects of recent past) and “distal ageing” (differences because of incidences early in life that can be traced back to a reason early in person's life like an early marriage, early pregnancy etc) According to Abiodun, Adekeye and Iruonagbe (2011) the concept of ageing is multifaceted. This is because its in-depth description or explanation covers diverse areas of human development. There are chronological, biological, psychological, and social, functional dimensions of ageing. The chronological dimension describes the number of years that have slipped away since one's birth while the biological explains the status of vital organs of the body as an individual advances in age. The psychological dimension focuses on individual ability to adapt to environmental demands/challenges while social dimension sheds light on how an individual conforms to written and unwritten norms, roles expected of him/her by the society in he/she operates The functional dimension measures how effective an individual is in physical and social environment when compared with other people within his/her age bracket. (Papalia, Feldman, Camp, 2002; Hoyer & Roodin, 2003). Gerontologists confirmed that age and ageing have at least four dimensions. The dimension most of us think of is chronological age, defined as the number of years since someone was born. A second dimension is biological ageing, which refers to the physical changes that “slow us down” as we get into our middle and older years. For example, our arteries might clog up, or problems with our lungs might make it more difficult for us to breathe. A third dimension, psychological ageing, refers to the psychological changes, including those involving mental functioning and personality, that occur as we age. Gerontologists emphasize that chronological age is not always the same thing as biological or psychological age. Some people who are 65, for example, can look and act much younger than some who are 50. The fourth dimension of ageing is social. According to Hooyman and Kiyak (2011) social gerontology is the study of the social aspects of ageing which refers to changes in a person’s 22 roles and relationships, both within their networks of relatives and friends and in formal organizations such as the workplace and houses of worship. Although social ageing can differ from one individual to another, it is also profoundly influenced by the perception of ageing that is part of a society’s culture. If a society views ageing positively, the social ageing experienced by individuals in that society will be more positive and enjoyable than in a society that views ageing negatively. 2.2 Concept of Perception Perception is our recognition and interpretation of sensory information, it also includes how we respond to the information. We can think of perception as a process where we take in sensory information from our environment and use that information in order to interact with our environment. Perception allows us to take the sensory information in and make it into something meaningful. According to Dewey cited in Asuquo and Maliki (2007), Perception is the process by which organisms maintain contact with the environment. He asserted that a man’s perception is coloured by the assumptions he brings to bear on any particular occasion as well as the meaning he attaches to things, symbols, people and events or ideas. Koko (2002) described perception as mechanism through which an individual realizes and appreciates his/her environment and the people in it. Accordingly, a perceiver is not passive but actively selects information to provide basis for reducing uncertainty. He explained that two people could see a thing differently but each sees a reality that is unique to him and that is the reality that moderates his behaviour. The implication of this is that ageing teachers are likely to see ageing differently due to their experiences, social needs, aspirations as well as information obtained from the environment peers, colleagues, friends, neighbours, society, children e.t.c (Asuquo & Maliki, 2007). Furthermore, Koko (2002) affirms that how an individual perceives his situation, directly affects how he behaves. So teachers perception of 23 ageing may depend on their social, psychological, environmental variables and their inter play. Research has shown that a negative self-perception of ageing which is an indicator of risk for future disability can be contributed by factors such as low-economic status, living alone, multiple chronic medical conditions, and depressive feelings (Moser; Spagnoli & Santos- Eggimann, 2011). Citing Levy, Slade and Kasl (2002); Moser, Spagnoli and Santos- Eggimann (2011) informed that the process by which individuals develop perceptions about themselves as old draws on two stages of expectations either internalised during the lifetime that preceded old age or through encounters that elderly individuals have in their everyday life. These ageing expectations include trajectories of attributes that will increase or decrease at different points over the life span (Moser; Spagnoli & Santos-Eggimann, 2011). 2.3 Perception of ageing among men and women International Longevity Centre (2014) noted that there remain significant discrepancies between men and women in such areas as life expectancy, health status, economic/personal safety, social/labour participation and burden-sharing whose accumulation can portend serious issues on health and well-being. This is so, as the gender group discriminated against may develop what can be termed ageing anxiety. Brunton and Scott (2015) who concurred to the description of Lynch (2000) of ageing anxiety as “the expression of peoples’ fear of ageing” observed that men and women have different fears of ageing; greater quality contact is related to less ageing anxiety, and that poor health is related to greater ageing anxiety. Thus, ageing anxiety may be a mediator variable between gender and perception of ageing. The gender that expresses the more fear may have the worst perceptions of ageing, and perhaps with debilitating psychological, social and physical health implications. 24 United Nations Organization (1999) asserted that life of women have always been seen mainly on biological development, especially on reproductive roles, and that a woman’s life is seen as going into decline after mid-life. Most researchers have shown that women are more concerned about loss of attractiveness accompanying ageing (McConatha, Schnell, Volkwein, Riley, & Leach, 2003) and experience more anxiety about their own ageing than do men (Cummings et al., 2000; Lynch, 2000; Harris & Dollinger, 2003; Harris Abramson & Silverstein, 2006; Bugental & Hehman, 2007; Barrett & Robbins, 2008). Goswami (2013) posits that in our youth oriented, patriarchal society, ageing women often find themselves either ignored, pitied or feared which is why most women are very concerned with the ageing factor. Women are more dearly affected by ageing than men as beauty is attached to youth and as youth declines beauty also sets. According to Sontag in Harris (1990) women in our society are more dependent on their physical appearance for status and self-concept than men; feminist is associated with sexual attractiveness while masculinity is associated with power and position. Men derive their status and self-concept from money, occupation and leadership- all of which are sexually enhancing and diminish more slowly than physical appearance. Therefore ageing carries a greater social stigma for women than for men. At an older age, women are viewed as less alluring than men; where older men are seen as handsome, women are seen as less attractive. Such a double standard for ageing is, in part due to a tendency to judge women in line with the idea that youth and sexuality are equated with beauty and reproduction, while ageing goes with de-sexuality. Tiggemann and Lynch (2001) asserted that body dissatisfaction occurs more often among women; with increasing age, women move further away from basic features that tend to be most valued in a woman: beauty and youth. Conversely men are “allowed” to appear their age, and in fact, signs of ageing may even enhance a man’s attractiveness. Laura-Maria, Mariano and Newton (2013) confirmed that there is a growing concern over ageing and an 25 increasing social pressure on women to retain physical attractiveness and sexuality through a slim figure and young looks as they grow older. Researchers have concluded that more than 60 percent of women between the ages of 60 and 70 years and around 80 percent of women 54years old are not satisfied with their own bodies. As a result of the devaluation of ageing women they tend to view themselves more negatively with increasing age. According to Osarenren, Nwadinigwe, Ubangha and Ogunleye (2009) African society is much more permissive of ageing in men, most positive traits associated with masculinity actually increase with age, example competence, autonomy, self-control and power; whereas feminine characteristics such as sweetness, passivity, non-competitiveness and gentleness remain stable. Society, places a premium on women’s attractiveness. Hurd (2000) opined that in the “natural order”, a woman is valued in terms of her physical appearance relative to man’s appreciation of beauty. Existing cultural ideals of beauty and womanhood therefore lead many women to fear ageing itself as a loss of attractiveness and femininity. Many women therefore perceive ageing from physiological point of view and so they fight signs of ageing using every available means. To them physiological changes that come with ageing, means that their beauty is fading away, and may not be admired again. Gilleard (2000) confirmed that many age resisting cultural practices are predominantly the province of women. This is true of cosmetic surgery; of anti-ageing make-ups, creams and preparations of hair dye, of age denying fashion, books offering “anti-ageing strategies” are directed at and bought principally by women. Oberg cited in Brenner (2007) opined that physical signs of ageing are judged more harshly in women than in men. Women power is embedded in more enduring values of beauty and sexual allure, while men power is embedded in more enduring values of status and wealth. When older men are seen as handsome, women are seen as less attractive (WHO, 2009). 26 According to Salaam cited in Makama (2013) tradition or culture and religion have dictated men and women relationship for centuries and entrenched male domination into the structure of social organization and institution at all levels of leadership. Patriarchy justifies the marginalization of women in education, economy, labour market, politics, business, family, domestic matters and inheritance. Makama (2013) posits that this culture of patriarchy is a very strong determinant of male dominance over female and as a result men will sit back in the family to keep the family name and lineage growing while women will be married out. Thus men are being trained for leadership activities while women are confined to domestic activities; roles ascribed to them by culture which affect them later in life, thereby making them to lose self-confident/worth and have low self- esteem in their career in adult life, politics inclusive and even how they age. However, for many men, the midpoint in life brings a great deal of frustration and worry. It’s a period where men first begin to notice their bodies are slowing down. Unwanted physical and emotional changes begin to creep in. Combine these with a general lack of get-up-and- go, and it’s understandable that many grow moody or irritable trying to cope with this new reality. Nutty, (2012) posits that men under-going midlife crisis question their choices, resulting in a particular set of feelings such as searching for undefined goals, sense of regret for unachieved goals, potential fear of humiliation from successful peers, the desire to attain the youth feeling, and the desire to spend more time either alone or with friends It is evident that there are significant gender differences regarding the triggers and effects of mid-life which equally signifies the journey into old age. Nutty (2012) asserts that women handle their midlife crisis relatively better than men owing to the fact that they perceive midlife crisis as a turning point for the better. For women, midlife crisis is a point of reassessment and transition. Most women at this age are in their empty-nest stage, they are through with child bearing and rearing which comes with a certain air of freedom and more 27 time to take care of themselves, travel to visit grown children either for mere visit to stay for a while or for the purpose of “omugwo” for women from the Eastern part of the country. This is the period a woman goes to take care of a daughter that newly put to bed, more time to visit and stay with old parents if they are still alive, pursue new dreams, etc. Women from this angle perceive ageing positively because according to Nutty (2012) women tend to reinvent themselves at midlife. However, while women are breathing the air of freedom and opportunity to visit their children, men may begin to retreat from the freedom they enjoyed while their wives were busy with child rearing and upbringing. A man by Igbo culture and most cultures in Nigeria stays in his house to take care of his compound and protect it from external invaders. The absence of the woman in the house during her routine visits makes the man to assume new roles that were traditionally reserved for the women. Such roles as cooking, sweeping, taking care of children if they are still there may give rise to sadness, loneliness, depression and even aggression this may trigger negative perception of ageing. Hence some men at midlife seem to derive pleasure in life outside their homes, staying with friends in clubs and beer palours. Clarke in Kleinspehn, Kotter-Grruhn and Smith (2008) confirmed that people have affairs for a myriad of reasons; the obvious ones are because they’re not satisfied with their marriage and are looking for a woman to fulfill their needs where their wife falls short. According to Ndeesor (2010) in pre-colonial Ibibio society, mainly today Akwa-Ibom state, “polygamy” was the accepted norm. With this institution, the Ibibio women was born, raised and given out in marriage. Her worldview, self-concept and gender identity were nurtured within such an environment. Competition and survival was the name of the game which was played out endlessly among men and women. In such a highly competitive society, education, moral standards, taboos and expectations existed, all woven into an unwritten tradition and culture with sets of Divine punishment and records to enforce these beliefs. Well organized 28 institutions existed to provide governmental and judicial instruments. Within that society, Ibibio women had well defined roles, not as slaves, but as indispensable complements to man in procreation and in socio-economic development. The roles Ibibio women played were mutually supportive and even integrated into their family life in a very high degree. Essien and Ukpong (2012) posits that in traditional Akwa-Ibom society, women are perceived as subordinates and men as boss. The male-child preference is deeply rooted in the culture of AkwaIbom State. The man is regarded as the head of the family. Men assumed headship in traditional structures in the villages and in the clans. Of about 2,000 villages in AkwaIbom State, there is none who could appoint a woman as a head. It is almost like a taboo to think of a woman being a clan head just like in Igbo society. Women are perceived as part of men’s property. Hence, a man is free to marry as many women as he can afford, whereas, a woman is not expected to have a friend beside her husband. According to Goswami (2013) ageing comes with a sinking feeling which may be due to the fact that youth is snatched from their hands by destiny and it cannot be avoided. Gleibs, Haslam, Jones, Alexander, Jade and Connolly (2011) asserted that building new social group memberships in the form of gender clubs can counteract decreasing well-being particularly amongst men; participants in their study showed significant reduction in depression and anxiety and an increased sense of social identification with others. Kim and Moen in Ugwu (2011) observed higher levels of ageing satisfaction in men than in women. United Nations, 2009 as cited in Cuddy, Crotty, Chong and Norton (2010) posits that men as a group possess higher status in virtually every nation in the world and higher status groups tend to be viewed as possessing more of whatever skills their society most values. A study by researchers at Florida State University found that men are less apprehensive about growing old than women. In their findings females expressed considerably more anxiety and fear about ageing than their male counterparts (Barrett & Von-Rohr, 2008). 29 Baugh, Dunn and Shelnutt (2013) asserted that women are consistently judged based on their physical appearance and relationship status, while men are measured more by their accomplishments and wealth. This explains why ageing may be perceived more positively by men than women. Goswami (2013) posits that in our youth oriented, patriarchal society, ageing women especially the married ones, often find themselves either ignored, pitied or feared which is why most women are very concerned with the ageing factor. As people grow older, their bodies and abilities undergo variety of changes. Chen (2017) asserted that people age at different rates, in different places. These differences are as a result of factors which may be biological or genetic, social, physical and psychological. Udo, (2006) opined that how a person ages depends in part on the person’s family (genetic) patterns of ageing. But ones lifestyle choices have a more powerful impact on how well a person body ages. These differences have equally brought about gender differences in experiences of ageing perception and attitude towards ageing. According to Fadaka (2002) some of the physical changes in women as a result of ageing include problems of general body pains or rheumatism, changes in skin making their skin to be dry and wrinkled, teeth loss and failing eye sight. At times in ability to control the bladder and/or bowels, weakness or loss of strength. In a study carried out by kalfoss, Diakonova University College, Oslo Norway, to explore Norwegian gender differences in attitudes to ageing among 282 females and 200 males living in a community. Compared to men, women perceived ageing as a time of greater loss, however, they felt more strongly that ageing brought wisdom and their life had made a difference. On the other hand, men felt more strongly that physical problems did not hold them back from doing what they wanted to do. Among the indicators of ageing according to Udo, (2006) are wrinkles, gray hair, thin hair, receding hair line, shrinking of body size, menopause among others. The accumulation and our experiences of various life 30 events and stages in life affect our total being, consequently how a person ages and how one age determines how the person perceives ageing. Different sections of the Nigerian population have their peculiar ways of treating the ageing population which may not only determine the ageing perception of the elderly but also induce the ageing persons on how they perceive themselves as they advance in chronological year. 2.4 Ageing Stereotypes and Perception of the Ageing According to Popham and Hess (2015), stereotypes are beliefs regarding the characteristics of people within the same demographic, cultural, or social group. They are sets of beliefs which shape the way we think and behave in everyday life. As explained by the authors, these beliefs in uence social interactions and perceptions of others based on their membership in a stereotyped group which can have negative consequences. Although old age is linked to both positive (e.g., wise, caring, accomodative) and negative (e.g., senile, needy, unhappy, inactive, less useful) stereotypes, negative attributes clearly outweigh positive ones (Kotter & Hess 2012). Dionigi, (2015) asserted that positive and negative perceptions of ageing can have enabling and constraining effects on actions, performance, decisions, attitudes and consequently, holistic life of an older adult; also that stereotypes about a particular group play a powerful role in shaping how we think about and interact with individuals, as well as how individuals within the stereotyped group see themselves. Views of old age, and perceptions older adults hold of themselves are complex, multi- dimensional and dynamic. In other words, stereotypes of ageing are social constructs that are culturally and historically situated, as well as individually interpreted (Dionigi, 2015). The activation of age stereotypes and age related cues influence performance and behaviour and are related to health and longevity, particularly in those who belong to the stereotyped group (Hess, 2006; Horton, Baker, & Deakin, 2007; Hsu, Chung & Langer, 2010). 31 In the research conducted by Kotter-Gruhn and Hess, Psychologists at North Carolina State University, United State of America, on 183 aged 18-92 years with mean age of 48.72 years, to determine the impact of age stereotypes on self-perception of ageing, they found out that the activation of positive age stereotypes did not positively influence self-perceptions of ageing. Quite the contrary, priming middle aged and older adults in good health with positive age stereotypes made them feel older. After the activation of negative age stereotypes, older adults in good health felt older and those in bad health wanted to be younger than before priming. Even younger and middle aged adults reported younger desired ages after the negative age stereotypes priming. Persons in bad health also thought they looked older after being primed with negative age stereotypes. Levy, Slade, Kunkel and Kasl (2002) asserted that holding negative perceptions of ageing is not a minor problem as it impacts upon many areas of life such as motivation, mental health, physical health and even mortality. In his own submission, Dionigi (2015) stated that stereotypes of ageing are pervasive in our culture and they have been found to influence how older adults perceive themselves; how older adults view other older adults; older adults’ cognitive and physical performance and the ability of older adults to recover from disease. Furthermore, “Labelling theory” suggested that when confronted with age stereotypes, older adults integrate the stereotypical information into their self-evaluation and therefore show assimilation effects (Rothermund & Brandtstadter, 2003; Rothermund, 2005). Thus, resisting the internalization of negative stereotypes about aging and old age can be viewed as an effective self-enhancing strategy (Westerhof & Barrett, 2005). Mead cited in Kotter and Hess (2012) opined that when negative stereotypes of ageing is internalized, they become part of individual’s self. Negative stereotypes originally held about people therefore become negative self-perceptions of ageing in later life. Macia, Lahmam, Baali, Boëtsch and Chapuis-Lucciani (2009) demonstrated that some notions associated with the status of older adults such as respect is shared across cultures 32 whereas other notions such as the association between aging and affection/love differ across societies. Stereotypes of ageing include assumptions and generalizations about how people at or over a certain age should behave, and what they are likely to experience, without regard for individual differences or unique circumstances. However, stereotypes about ageing are acquired years before people become old and this is why they are often subtle and hidden from view; these stereotypes begin to influence people’s perception a long time before the ageing process sets in and can leave people feeling pessimistic about the future as well as stifled when they reach old age (Levy, Slade, Kunkel, & Kasl 2002). Views of old age, and perceptions older adults hold of themselves are complex, multi-dimensional and dynamic. In other words, stereotypes of ageing are social constructs that are culturally and historically situated, as well as individually interpreted (Dionigi, 2015). As informed by Fernandez-Ballesteros, Garcia, Abarcas, Blanc, Efklides, Moraitou and Patricia (2010), self-perceptions of ageing are often more influenced by one’s actual experiences rather than society’s stereotypes about ageing. Thus the study of Macia, Lahmam, Baali, Boetsch and Chapuis-Lucciani (2009) suggested that stereotypes affect perception of ageing by shaping attitudes mainly along the mental/physical domain of old age. Dionigi, (2015) asserted that positive and negative perceptions of ageing can have enabling and constraining effects on actions, performance, decisions, attitudes and consequently, holistic life of ageing persons; also that stereotypes about a particular group play a powerful role in shaping how we think about and interact with individuals, as well as how individuals within the stereotyped group see themselves. According to Levy, Slade, Kunkel and Kasl (2002) older individuals’ internalized age stereotypes contribute to the formation of their self-perceptions of ageing. 33 From a sociocultural perspective, negative age stereotypes are socialized early in life (Kwong and Heller, 2005; Montepare and Zebrowitz, 2002) and become so well ingrained that they may be automatically activated in the mere presence of an older person (Perdue and Gurtman, 1990; Hummert, Gartska, O'Brien, Greenwald, and Mellot, 2002). Negative stereotypes can have harmful consequences for the quality of life of older adults and can also result in a major loss to society. With increases in life expectancy as well as reduced infirmity, many adults are ageing well, but negative stereotypes of ageing may put society at risk for losing the contributions of these vital and knowledgeable people. Negative ageing stereotypes may not only affect the attributions of medical personnel regarding an older adult's symptoms (i.e., viewing them as normal ageing instead of as treatable conditions), but may also affect the older person's understanding of what normal ageing is. Thus, the older adult does not receive enough medical care or doesn't want more medical care because of his or her own stereotypes about normal ageing. This make many older adults themselves overlook symptoms of disease because they view them as part of normal ageing, when they should be taking these symptoms more seriously. 2.5 Socio-Economic Status and Ageing Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and social combined total measure of a person’s work experience and of an individual or family economic and social position in relation to others based on income, education and occupation. There is a growing body of evidence that suggests that psychological and sociological factors have a significant influence on how well individuals age. According to Singh and Misra (2009) ageing research has demonstrated a positive correlation of someone’s religious beliefs, social relationships, perceived health, self- efficacy, socioeconomic status and coping skills, among others, with their ability to age more successfully. American Psychological Association (2017) opined that socioeconomic status (SES) affects over all human functioning, including our physical and mental health; its effects 34 can be observed across the life span. Low SES and its correlates, such as lower educational achievement, poverty and poor health, ultimately affect our society as a whole. Behavioral and other social science professionals possess the tools necessary to study and identify strategies that could alleviate these disparities at both individual and societal levels. According to Niedzioiedz, Katikireddi, Pell and Mitchell (2014) socio-economic position has been identified as a key determinant of quality of life, with those currently experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage reporting poorer well-being. Different dimensions of socioeconomic position, such as education and wealth, may have various direct and indirect effects on quality of life. For example, greater material resources in early old age allow individuals to participate in cultural and leisure activities, which may contribute to feelings of self-actualization and autonomy. A higher education level and occupational success could contribute to a more positive evaluation of life and feelings of control over one’s past and future and help provide meaning to life. Children living in advantaged families may achieve a higher educational status, work in less strenuous jobs, and will earn more life-time income as this may lay a foundation for active ageing which positive effects will be visible as the individual ages. Higher socioeconomic status, measured by education, profession, or income, has been associated with lower ageing anxiety (Lynch, 2000; Yan, Silverstein & Wilber 2011), perhaps because resources provide the means to deal with many of the challenges of ageing (Abramson & Silverstein, 2006). It is a major factor shaping the multiple strands of the life course, including family, work, ageing and health trajectories (Barrett, 2005). This is because socioeconomic status influences the timing of life transitions and rate of physiological decline and the primary determinant of the subjective experience of ageing (Barrett, 2005). It shapes the way an individual thinks about age and the stage of life in general and his or her own age and life stage in particular. It is a key factor in determining the quality of life of ageing 35 people (Huisman, 2014). It is known that in almost all countries, those with low SES have worse health and higher mortality rates than older adults with higher SES; those with higher education and income also reported higher general well-being and life satisfaction. In a study carried out by Fajemilehin and Odebiyi (2011), from the Department of Nursing Science, College of Health Science, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria; on Predictors of Elderly Persons’ Quality of Life and Practices in Nigeria, the study was conducted in 10 purposively selected traditional core health districts in Ife/Ijesa zone of Osun State, Nigeria. Three hundred elderly who were sixty years and above and three hundred caregivers were interviewed and fully participated in the study. In their findings, among other predictors, educational status and having personal money are major predictors of quality of life and positive health behaviours among the elderly. This shows that the elderly ones who have some level of financial comfort will age better than those who do not have, because they have the resources to take care of their physical and medical care. This may equally boost their level of social association and psychological health. Fajemilehin in Fajemilehin and Odebiyi (2011) confirmed that meaningful social relationships provide a sense of security and opportunities for companionship and intimacy which are important for the well-being of older people. Furthermore, results from a study on Challenges of Ageing in a Traditional Nigerian Society by Adeleke (2014), from Adekunle Ajasin University, Nigeria using 220 elderly persons selected from Ikare a semi- urban centre in south western, Nigeria showed that majority of the highly educated aged people depended on life-savings and not on their children as against the situation of the less educated ones who majorly depended on their children. Research evidences (Chen, Chiao & Ksobiech, 2014; Chow & Bae, 2011; Barrett, 2003) have indicated that socio-economic status may indeed shape the perception of ageing which may itself be a mediator to health and well-being. Orth, Trzesniewski, and Robins (2014) opined that people 36 who have higher incomes and better health in later life tend to maintain their self-esteem as they age; wealth and health are related to feeling more independent and better able to contribute to one’s family and society, which in turn boosts self-esteem. Research has found consistently that occupying lower socio-economic strata is associated with having older identities. Compared with the more advantaged, individuals of lower SES are more likely to classify themselves as “old” or “elderly” (George in Barrett, 2003) and feel older than their chronological age. Barrett (2003) opined that occupying lower socioeconomic strata produces a more rapid rate of physiological ageing as a consequence of cumulative hardships over the life course; hence older identities are found among the most disadvantaged. Compared with their wealthier counterparts, individuals of lower SES tend to perceive a more temporally compressed life course. They view the onset of old age as occurring at a younger age, perceive earlier cultural age deadlines for many adult transitions and anticipate a shorter life span (Ross &Mirowsky, 2000; Settersten & Hagestad, 1996). Consistent with these patterns, the less advantaged tend to adopt older age identities than the more privileged (Barrett, 2003). Adler and Newman cited in Drewnowski, Moudon, Jiao, Aggarwal, Charreire and Chaix (2014) asserted that socioeconomic status, whether assessed by income, education, or occupation, is linked to a wide range of health problems, including low birth weight, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, arthritis, diabetes and cancer. He stated further that the most fundamental causes of health disparities are socioeconomic status. A research carried out by Huisman, Kunst, Andersen, Bopp, Borrell,… and Mackenbach (2004) illustrated the impact of material disadvantage in a study of 11 European countries, including England and Wales. Using education levels and housing tenure as indicators of socio economic status, they argued that material disadvantage had a notable impact on mortality in older populations. 37 They found that educational inequalities that existed in people who were aged 65 years persisted and mortality gap between those who had high and low levels of education continued into late old age. He equally found a similar pattern in relation to housing with higher rate of mortality for individuals who were renting their accommodation compared with those who were home owners. Akinyemi, (2012) opined that wealth index and other proxies of empowerment, such as education to a great extent influence quality of life. Bassuk, Berkman and Amick (2002) aligned that older individuals of low SES have increased mortality rates, higher stroke incidence. 2.6 Perception of Ageing and Societal Roles Different societies have different cultures, a culture represents the belief and practices of a group, these beliefs are learned and acquired behaviours which guide the conduct of each member of the society. Cultural values and traditions determine to a large extent how a society views older people (WHO 2007). Njiku cited in Ajala (2006) opined that there are indeed specific cultural determinants of ageing across human societies. These determinants inform that there are great varieties of styles, forms and functions of ageing in different cultural settings. Culturally driven expectations affect how people view older persons, their ageing process and even how the ageing see themselves. In Nigeria, the subject of perception about being an aged person has been scantily researched by the scholars of ageing. However, other aspects of ageing have been extensively explored by the researchers in this field. To be specific, a study conducted among 277 respondents in Yoruba community of South-western Nigeria show that the perception of ageing has drifted from peaceful retirement to crises- embedded stage of life (Ajala, 2006). In addition, the author reiterated that the changing perception of ageing in Yoruba society is connected with economic, cultural and psychological challenges. Nevertheless, behavioral references show that there is no stipulated age for individuals to reach before they can be recognized as an old person. Although, the 38 Yoruba people were of the opinions that for an individual to function properly as an aged person; he or she must be 50 years and above, yet there are some individuals in the society who are less than 50 years old, but by responsibility and family roles, they act as old persons. At this point, it is essential to note that modernization; urbanization and industrialization have drastically changed the perception of aged people from their traditional and social leadership roles in Yoruba society (Ajala, 2006). Dimkpa (2015) documented that the Hausa in Northern Nigeria have a close relationship with and much respect for their aged persons as is expected by the culture of the Nigerian people. In the same account by Dimkpa (2015), the Igbo of Eastern Nigeria had a slightly different view from those of the Hausa. The Igbos believed that their elderly or aged parents should be catered for no matter their socio-economic level or financial status. However, there is no document to show that a study of this nature has been conducted amongst the Igbos except for the interviews that the researcher had with some of them. They were of the opinion that any Igbo man or woman who flouted the caring culture towards the aged was ‘wicked’. The finding also showed that although cases of elderly neglect was rare among the Igbos, there could still be some exceptional cases, such as in a situation in which the elderly had no children or had lost all of them through supernatural means. Akpan and Umobong (2013) claimed that a greater number of elders in Akwa Ibom State experience neglect and financial/material abuse. Okoroafor (2015) confirmed that in Calabar, Cross River state, thirteen elderly persons were picked up from the street after being thrown out by their respective families, allegedly claiming that they were witches. In the South South, Eboiyehi (2015) reported that there was decline in care and support for the ageing as evident in the ways old age and aged persons are perceived. His study examines how the perception of old age affects care and support for the aged among the Esan people of South-South Nigeria. The study relies on qualitative methods namely; in-depth interviews 39 (IDIs) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). In all 32 IDIs and 12 FGDs were conducted on the aged and their caregivers in both urban and rural areas. The results show that the traditional care and support for the aged in the study area is diminishing due to the way the younger generation perceives old age and the aged. The change in perception of old age and the aged is linked to Western influence which is gradually eroding the traditional/cultural belief where the aged were seen in positive light. Dimkpa (2015) is of the view that the way aging is perceived these days in Nigeria is different from what it was some decades ago. In the olden days Africa, there was cultural respect and acceptability for the elderly. During the period, the elderly subgroup practiced traditional farming system and polygamy as the vogues of wealth and survival, and hence, enjoyed a level of social support as the relational provision of attachment, social integration, opportunity to nurture, feeling of worth, sense of reliability and guidance which has contributed to quality of life of the elderly in the sub region (Fajemilehin & Odebiyi, 2011). Africans generally are very respectful and responsible people who took care of their elderly persons irrespective of whether they were related biologically or not. This is as a result of their culture as well as the age-long tradition which encourages participatory activity such as care-giving within the family and community. Vickers (2007) asserted that our upbringing and socialization, outlook on life and personal experiences all play a role in the way we view each other including our view on ageing. Since stereotypes are culture-specific in affecting perception of ageing, it can be argued that perception of ageing cannot also, be unconnected with the place of origin of individuals. This is because where individuals reside or come from may be the moulders of their total way of life and expectations. Research reports tend to suggest that across global cultures, there seemed to be general perceived declines in societal views of aging, physical attractiveness, the ability to perform everyday tasks, and new learning, perceived increases in wisdom, 40 knowledge, and received respect, and perceived stability in family authority and life satisfaction. According to Fox (2015) ageing is not just a biological process; it is also very much a cultural one and socially determined. Hatch (2005) opined that immersed in a world surrounded by the media, people in our society absorb impressions, ideas, images and sounds that reflect society’s attitude toward ageing. In some cultures social participation in old age is not seen as a virtue: the perception is that old people are meant “to rest”. Sijusade in Onete, Imona and Ingwu (2013) posits that the perception of the aged by the younger generation has over the time, changed from positive to negative. This negative perception seems to portray them as having outlived their usefulness in the society and this to an extent can make the ageing to perceive their own transition to old age negatively. In practice, this results in some older people adopting sedentary life often in isolation due to resignation from social, economic and cultural participation, with a resulting increase in the risk of morbidity, loneliness, low self- esteem, depression (WHO, 2007). Richelle (2012) dwelt on the construct of ‘active ageing’ to imply active societal roles, and reported a positive link between active ageing and perception of ageing; Menec (2012) enunciated the roles which the elderly can play in the society in spite of their age and any perceived limitation. Depending on cultural norms, beliefs and standards, ageing can be seen as an undesirable phenomenon, reducing beauty and bringing one close to death or as an accumulation of wisdom and status worthy of respect. Thus different cultures have different attitudes and practices around ageing and death, and these cultural perspectives can have a huge effect on our experiences of getting older (Dimkpa, 2015). Olajubutu (2014) opined that growing old especially by women seems to be associated more with negative connotations. This perhaps, could partially be traced to the perceived marginalization of women who are 41 presumed to be individuals with limited abilities and few rights. Thus when it comes to evaluation, there is the tendency for a double standard in the way people perceive ageing between older men and women. For instance, Kite, Stockdale, Whitley and Johnson (2005) stated that older women are evaluated more negatively than older men. Public perception of older people can frequently stem from the culture within which they are embedded. For instance, these can include the household and familial beliefs, social influences, popular culture, the media, literature, and even environment (Gilbert & Ricketts 2008; Robinson, Gustafson & Poppvich, 2008; Musaiger & D’Souza, 2009). Various studies indicate that perception of the aged and how the aged perceive themselves are not the same across all cultures, or even within countries For example, older people are believed to have a devalued status in American society while other cultures such as African and Nigeria in particular, older people are admired and respected for their wisdom and experience (Cuddy , Crotty, Chong, & Norton 2005; Gildert & Ricketts 2008; Barrett & Cantwell 2009; Musaiger & D’Souza 2009).However, modernization and industrialization brings with it technological advances and changes in social roles. Traditional roles where older people were seen as great sources of knowledge and wisdom in society are beginning to change and impact on the public perceptions of older people (National Centre for the Protection of Older People, 2009). Many researchers argue that ageist attitudes are more prevalent in modern societies than in the past or